rOSTER 

THE  CONTINUATION  SCHOOL 


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in  2016 


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THE  CONTINUATION  SCHOOL 


BY 

ISAAC  OWEN  FOSTER 

B.S.  University  of  Illinois,  1921 


THESIS 


SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS 
FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF  MASTER  OF  SCIENCE  IN  EDUCATION 
IN  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  ILLINOIS,  1922 


URBANA,  ILLINOIS 


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University  of  Illinois  Library 
Manuscript  Theses 


Unpublished  theses  submitted  for  the  Master's 

r deposited  in  the  University 

0 llinois  Library  are  open  for  inspection,  but  are 
to  be  used  only  with  due  regard  to  the  rights  of  the 
aut  ors.  Bibliographical  references  may  be  noted, 
but  passages  may  be  copied  only  with  permission  of 
the  authors,  and  proper  credit  must  be  given  in  sub- 
sequent written  or  published  work.  Extensive  copy- 
ing or  publication  of  the  thesis  in  whole  or  in  part 

consent  of  the  Dean  of  the  Graduate 
School  of  the  University  ot  Illinois. 

This  Thesis  by  . . - 

has  been  used  by  the  following  persons,  whose  signa- 
tures attest  their  acceptance  of  the  above  restric- 
tions. 


A Library  which  borrows  this  thesis  for  use  bv 
Its  patrons  is  expected  to  secure  the  signature  of 
each  user. 


NAME  AND  ADDRESS 


DATE 


TT?TTT-tTP 


) 92^ 

Fell 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 

THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 


-192-2- 

1 HEREBY  RECOMMEND  THAT  THE  THESIS  PREPARED  UNDER  MY 
SUPERVISION  BY Xsajic  Owen  j'oster 

ENTITLED jUie^Gxmt-inuatio  21-  School 


BE  ACCEPTED  AS  FULFILLING  THIS  PART  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 
THE  DEGREE  OF^llas ter., oT  Science  in  Education 


Recommendation  concurred  in* 

Committee 

on 


Final  Examination* 


Required  for  doctor’s  degree  but  not  for  master’s 


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CONTENTS 


Chapter  Page 

I.  The  Basis  of  The  Study  ....  l 

II.  A Brief  Survey  of  The  Continuation  School  Movement  36 

III.  Some  Factors  in  Organization  and  Administration  59 

IV.  Retrospect  and  Prospect  ....  105 

Appendix 

I.  Provisions  of  Part-Time  Compulsory  Education  Laws  115 
II.  Funds  Available  under  The  Smith-Hughes  Act  . 116 

List  of  Works  Consulted:  The  Bibliography  . . n? 


THE  CONTINUATION  SCHOOL 
Chapter  I 

The  Basis  of  The  Study 

Education  an  Evolutionary  Process 

Modern  education  is  a labyrinth  of  serious  problems 
which  are  becoming  constantly  more  complex  and  which  are 
continually  increasing  at  a tremendous  rate.  Many  of  the 
problems  of  yesterday  are  more  difficult  today,  and  many  of 
them  have  undergone  such  a change  that  the  educator  of  a 
century  ago  would  hardly  recognize  them  now.  This  crucial 
situation  is  caused  primarily  by  a more  complex  society  which 
needs  larger  and  more  thorough  facilities  for  its  accomodation, 
and  this  need  has  been  the  chief  factor  in  making  the  school 
system  of  the  United  States  much  larger  and  more  complicated 
than  it  was  a few  decades  ago. 

Since  society  has  made  new  and  larger  demands  on 
educational  authorities  many  new  problems  gradually  have  been 
added  to  the  old  mass  of  educational  difficulties  which  are 
the  school  man's  heritage.  One  of  these  problems  which  is  both 
new  and  old  is  the  continuation  school,  an  institution  some- 
what aged  in  idea  and  experiment  but  new  in  possibilities, 
as  this  thesis  will  endeavor  to  show  in  the  following  chapters. 

Purposeful  activity  is  a practical  expression  of  the 
motives  and  ideals  of  individuals  either  separately  or 


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-2- 

collectively,  and  the  continuous  change  of  problems  in  the 

school  is  due  largely  to  the  change  of  these  motives  and 
ideals  which  frequently  themselves  become  modified  in  the  light 
of  experiment  and  consideration  from  various  angles.  Evidence 
of  this  appears  in  abundance  if  a careful  study  is  made  of 
such  somewhat  supplementary  factors  of  education  as  its  aims 
and  its  curricula  as  these  have  existed  at  various  stages  in 
the  history  of  the  world.  Hence,  three  illustrations  are  in- 
corporated at  this  point  to  substantiate  this  contention:  First, 
the  Spartan  held  the  militaristic  ideal  of  a perfect  and 
paramount  state  brought  about  by  the  physical  efficiency  of 
the  individuals  who  composed  the  state,  and  his  education 
included  ball-playing,  dancing,  running,  jumping,  discus-hurling, 
javelin-throwing,  and  wrestling,  while  little  attention  was 
paid  to  intellectual  training.^  Secondly,  the  Roman  looked 
upon  the  orator  as  being  the  ideal  man  of  culture  and  refine- 
ment for  his  state,  and  to  accomplish  this  aim  rhetorical 
schools  were  established  which  included  a very  broad  curriculim 
and  afforded  training  in  those  subjects  that  were  believed  to 
be  necessary  for  or  accessory  to  the  making  of  a man  of 
eloquence  and  power .^Thirdly,  the  aim  of  present-day  education 
has  been  expressed  by  Bagley  and  has  been  accepted  by  educators 
as  "social  efficiency"*  hence,  in  order  to  make  the  individual 
socially  efficient  the  curricula  of  the  public  schools  include 
vocational,  social,  physical,  and  aesthetic  training, 

1 Graves,  Frank  P.,  A Student's  History  of  Education,  11-12. 

2 Ibid.,  38. 


-3- 

These  examples  illustrate  the  truth  that  social  evolution  has 

been  going  on  in  the  educational  phases  of  human  endeavor  by 
being  given  expression  in  the  purposes  and  curricula  of  the 
school.  Further,  they  are  representative  of  a legion  of  others 
which  show  equally  well  that  education  is  an  evolutionary 
process,  a series  6f  activities,  which  constantly  change  in 
terms  of  their  purposes. 

The  Continuation  School  Idea 

Out  of  this  evolutionary  process  all  phases  of  modern 
education  have  emerged  and  they  center  in  the  public  school  as 
the  chief  agency.  For  many  years  the  public  school  has  attempted 
to  educate  the  children  of  our  republic.  It  has  been  criticized 
often  and  severely;  yet  its  good  results  never  can  be  estimated. 
Its  defects  which  are  many  have  been  magnified  as  it  has  raced 
with  the  development  Of  democracy.  In  order  to  remedy  some  of 
its  most  striking:  defects  many  reforms  which  were  the  results 
of  some  more  or  less  far-sighted  ideas  have  been  undertaken 
and  some  of  them  have  been  successfully  realized.  One  of  these 
evolutionary  problems,  however,  that  has  not  been  completely 
realized  is  the  desire  to  place  an  education  within  the  reach 
of  every  individual  regardless  of  his  social  or  economic  status. 
Since  this  problem  cannot  be  solved  by  the  traditional  public 
school  alone  and  since  the  continuation  school,  if  properly 
organized  and  administered,  has  many  ‘ possibilities  in  this 
direction  the  term,  "continuation  idea",  has  been  selected  to 
denote  the  ideal  of  placing  an  education  within  the  reach  of 
those  people  who  have  not  been  educated  acceptably  by  the 
regular  public  school  and  who  have  severed  their  student 


-4- 

connections  with  this  institution. 

One  of  the  important  steps  towards  the  realization  of 
the  continuation  idea  was  undertaken  when  an  organized  effort 
was  begun  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  children  in  school  until 
they  were  prepared  for  their  particular  work  in  life.  As  a 
result  compulsory  attendance  laws  were  enacted  and  more  or 
less  enforced,  but  these  did  not  prove  to  be  a panacea  for  all 
the  evils  of  the  illiterate  and  unprepared  portion  of  the 
people  because  the  public  school  did  not  train  for  any  particular 
work  in  life  and  because  the  children  were  not  required  to 
attend  long  enough  to  learn  certain  trades  and  professions. 
Another  step  towards  the  realization  of  this  ideal 
was  the  movement  against  child  labor  which  during  the  present 
century  swept  over  practically  every  section  of  the  United 
States.  Both  federal  and  local  statutes  were  enacted  and  as  a 
result  many  children  who  were  forced  out  of  employment  turned 
back  to  the  public  school.  Since  that  movement  began,  in  some 
states,  such  as  Illinois,  the  standards  have  been  raised  in 
order  that  the  children  might  receive  as  much  real  schooling 
as  possible  before  entering  industry, 

A third  movement  toward  the  continuation  idea  was  the 
establishment  of  voluntary  evening  schools  both  for  adults  and 
for  minors.  Through  this  agency  an  opportunity  to  obtain  an 
education  was  made  possible  for  a large  number  of  people  who 
previously  had  had  no  such  opportunity  offered  to  them.  This 
kind  of  continuation  education  is  without  the  province  of  this 
thesis  except  as  is  sheds  light  on  the  realization  of  the 
continuation  idea. 


I 


-5- 

In  the  fourth  place,  the  movement  for  continuation 
education  began  to  receive  more  and  more  stress  in  an  effort  to 
reach  those  who  were  in  employment  and  whom  the  compulsory 
attendance  and  child  labor  laws  did  not  affect.  This  movement 
was  an  effort  to  realize  the  continuation  idea,  the  offering  of 
educational  facilities  and  advantages  to  all  who  oared  to  profit 
by  them.  The  carrying  out  of  this  idea  began  with  the  younger 
members  of  society  and  is  proceeding  towards  the  older.  When 
the  idea  shall  be  realized  fully  the  adult  worker  may  receive 
instruction  in  the  public  school  at  public  expense  at  evenings 
or  during  his  leisure  (and  frequently,  perhaps,  during  the 
regular  working  day) . 

But  will  the  realization  of  the  continuation  idea  make 
everybody  socially  efficient?  Certainly  not,  but  it  will  open 
the  doors  of  opportunity  to  a large  number  of  people  who  under 
the  present  scheme  lack  such  opportunities  for  educational 
advancement.  In  this  way  Americans  democracy  will  tend  to  be- 
come more  equitable  in  opportunity  and  its  people  will  tend  to 
be  more  socially  efficient.  This  work  already  has  been  begun. 

An  important  link  in  the  chain  was  forged  when  during  the  last 
decade  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  enacted  the  Smith— Hughes 
Law,  but  before  taking  up  the  history  of  the  movement  the  limits 
of  the  term  with  which  we  deal  are  necessary:  Hence,  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  conception  of  the  continuation  school  is  now 
in  order. 

The  Continuation  School  Defined 

Sneddon  says  that  "a  continuation  school  should  be  de- 
fined to  include  only  schools  on  which  attendance  is  compulsory 
for  a minimum  of  a stated  number  of  hours  per  week  within  the 


I 


ordinary  working  day  of  young  persons  employed  gainfully."  ^ The 
chief  objection  to  this  definition  is  the  compulsory  require- 
ment. Beyond  question  at  the  present  time  compulsory  attendance 
is  necessary  for  the  highest  efficiency  either  in  the  traditional 
elementary  school  or  in  the  continuation  school;  however,  either 
would  still  remain  a school  without  the  compulsory  requirement. 

It  would  still  serve  those  people  who  would  take  advantage  of 
its  educational  facilities.  Hence,  this  idea  is  unnecessary  in 
the  exact  definition  of  the  continuation  school, 

Taylor  defines  the  continuation  school  as  "a  school  for 
persons  engaged  in  useful  employment,  which  gives  instruction 
supplementary  to  such  employment.  This  statement  is  not 
acceptable  because  it  has  only  an  industrial  significance.  The 
industrial  phase  is  very  important;  but  it,  alone,  is  too  narrow. 
It  forms  only  a part  of  the  truth  and  not  the  "whole  truth."' 

Cooley  declares  that  the  continuation  school  is  any 
institution  that  devotes  itself  to  the  further  education  of 
"young  people  who  have  outgrown  the  elementary  school."  ^ Neither 
this  statement  nor  its  context  points  out  why  the  author  of 
it  considers  the  transition  to  have  taken  place  when  the  pupil 
has  outgrown  the  elementary  school.  According  to  this  statement 
the  high  school,  the  university,  and  any  other  school  above 
the  eighth  grade  (or  ninth  grade  in  some  few  cases)  would  be 
a continuation  school.  Then  why  not  say  that  the  elementary 
school  is  a continuation  school  because  it  continues  the  de- 
velopment of  the  pupil  above  the  kindergarten?  Why  limit  the 

3 Sneddon,  David,  Vocational  Education,  333, 

4 Taylor,  Joseph  S.,  A Handbook  for  Vocational  Education,  86-87. 

5 Cooley,  Edwin  G.,  Vocational  Education  in  Europe,  82. 


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conception  of  the  terra  to  young  people  if  the  broadest  sense 
of  the  term  is  used?  Of  course,  it  is  certainly  true  that  in 
the  broadest  sense  every  act  is  one  of  continuation  training, 
but  such  a conception  is  broader  than  the  meaning  given  to  the 
particular  institution  with  which  this  thesis  deals.  Hence, 
this  definition  is  rejected. 

Hill  says  that  continuation  schools  "are  schools  in 
which  the  pupil  receives  some  form  of  day  school  instruction  at 
the  same  time  that  he  is  employed  in  the  shop."®  A literal  inter- 
pretation of  this  statement  would  lead  one  to  think  that  the 
continuation  school  is  designed  for  pupils  who  are  engaged  only 
in  shop  work,  but  this  is  not  so  and  to  avoid  confusion  another 
definition  must  be  sought.  The  real  meaning  of  the  last  phrase 
seems  to  be,  "in  some  occupation? 

The  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  has  taken 
a decided  step  in  advance  both  in  wording  and  in  meaning  by- 
declaring  that  the  continuation  school  is  "any  school  conducted 
for  a limited  number  Of  hours  during  the  regular  working  day. 

Such  a school  is  open  to  minors  and  adults  who  are  entered  upon 
employment".  Since  this  statement  is  quite  unwieldy  and  since 
the  institution  which  is  commonly  conceived  as  a continuation 
school  differs  regarding  the  practice  of  receiving  adults  into 
it,  this  statement  also  is  temporarily  unacceptable  to  the 
writer.  Certainly,  students  of  the  problem  welcome  the  day  when 
every  continuation  school  will  admit  adults  as  readily  as  minors. 

6 Hill,  David  S.,  An  Introduction  to  Vocational  Education,  50. 

7 Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Bulletin  No.  19, 1918 , 8. 


-H- 

In  its  broadest  sense  the  continuation  school  is  a school 
that  continues  the  education  of  its  pupils  beyond  the  regular 
day  school  but  as  it  is  used  in  this  thesis  it  means  that 
institution  which  provides  during  regular  working  hours  education 
for  persons > usually  minors,  who  are  gainfully  employed  and  who 
are  not  attending  the  regular  day  school.  A distinguishing 
feature  of  this  institution  is  that  it  is  a part-time  school. 

The  pupil  works  part  of  the  time  and  attends  the  continuation 
school  part  of  the  time,  the  major  amount  of  the  said  time  being 
spent  usually  at  his  work.  Hence,  the  name,  part-time  school, 
is  very  frequently  used  instead  of  the  term,  continuation  school. 

The  continuation  school,  as  it  is  used  in  this  discussion, 
does  not  coincide  with  the  continuation  idea.  The  latter  is 
broader  and  more  comprehensive  than  the  former.  It  is  an  ideal 
which  stands  before  the  educational  world,  while  the  former  is 
the  substance  of  the  institution  which  is  gradually  evolving 
from  the  traditional  public  school  towards  the  realization  of 
the  continuation  idea.  The  possible  future  progress  of  the 
continuation  school  towards  this  end  will  be  discussed  in  a 
later  chapter  of  this  thesis.  For  the  present,  however,  it  is 
better  to  concentrate  on  the  social  conditions  underlying  its 
justification;  then,  the  growth  of  the  continuation  idea  ajid 
the  continuation  school  itself  will  be  noticed;  later,  the 
question  of  administration  and  organization  will  be  dealt  with; 
and  finally,  a more  detailed  discussion  of  ideal  conditions  will 
be  appreciated  to  a fuller  extent. 


»9<» 

Arguments  for  The  Continuation  School 

For  a number  of  years  many  people  have  been  interested  in 
the  continuation  idea  and  a start  in  the  accomplishment  of  this 
ideal  has  been  made  in  the  institution  called  the  continuation 
or  part-time  school  or  classes.  Chapter  II  will  show  the  gradiial 
growth  in  this  phase  of  educational  evolution.  The  interest, 
however,  which  has  been  manifested  and  which  is  still  so  intense 
is  the  result  of  a complexity  of  situations: 

„|^irst^  the  prevalence  of  illiteracy  is  in  itself  a con- 
dition of  such  moment  as  to  convince  the  fair-minded  individual 
that  a serious  defect  exists  in  the  heart  of  America's 
population  and  that  as  a result  some  remedy  must  be  sought.  Be- 
fore the  entrance  of  the  United  States  into  the  Great  War  com- 
paratively few  people  were  aware  of  the  amount  of  illiteracy 
that  existed  within  its  confines;  indeed,  little  attention  wa:s 
paid  to  this  problem  except  by  experts  in  the  field  of  sociology 
who  recognized  the  dangers  resultant  from  such  widespread 
illiteracy.  The  illiterate  population  according  to  Towne,  in 
1910  was  over  five  and  one-half  million;  this  means  that 
approximately  eight  per  cent  of  the  people  of  the  United  States 
could  neither  read  nor  write.®  Ellwood  pointed  out  the  relation 
of  illiteracy  to  crime  and  suggested  a remedy  which  fore- 
shadowed the  continuation  school.  He  said,  "^The  prison  census 
for  1910  showed  that  12.8  per  cent  of  the  prisoners  were 
illiterate,  while  only  8,2  per  cent  of  the  general  population 
fifteen  years  of  age  or  over  were  illiterate;  and  of  the  major 
offenders  a still  higher  per  cent  were  illiterate.  The  defects 


8.  Towne,  E.T.,  Social  Problems,  31. 


t 


-lo- 
in our  educational  conditions  which  especially  favor  the  de- 
velopment of  crime  are  chiefly:  lack  of  facilities  for  industrial 
education,  lack  of  physical  education,  and  lack  of  specific 
moral  instruction.*'® 

The  operation  of  the  Selective  Service  Act  during  the 
Great  War  brought  forth  many  startling  revelations,  and  one  of 
these  was  the  fact  that  illiteracy  was  more  prevalent  than  it 
was  thought  to  have  been.  Out  of  the  first  two  million  men 
chosen  about  ten  per  cent  of  them  were  illiterates.^^  This  dis- 
covery of  a cosmopolitan  condition  formed  the  core  for  the  dis- 
cussion of  many  sociological  and  educational  bodies  which  were 
concerned  with  the  prevention  of  illiteracy.  Really  a great 
deal  was  said  but  considerably  less  was  done. 

The  percentage  of  illiteracy,  however,  is  not  constant  in 
the  various  states  of  the  union.  The  male  percentage  reaches 
from  1.7  in  Iowa  to  38  in  Louisiana.  Thirteen  states  have  a per- 
centage higher  than  10.  The  female  percentage  extends  from  1.4 
in  Oregon  to  30,1  in  Louisiana.  Of  the  native  whites  who  have 
native  parentage  the  numbers  vary  from  .3  per  cent  in  Wyoming, 
Washington,  South  Dakota,  and  North  Dakota  to  15.5  per  cent  in 
Nev/  Mexico;  while  of  the  native  whites  of  foreign  or  mixed 
parentage  the  figures  begin  at  .3  per  cent  in  Idaho  and  Washing- 
ton and  extend  to  11,6  per  cent  in  Texas,  Of  the  foreign  born 
whites,  however,  the  percentage  varies  from  4.8  in  Washington 
to  31.5  in  Arizona.  The  State  that  has  the  lowest  negro 
illiteracy  is  again  Washington  with  4,3  per  cent  while  the 

9 Ellwood,  C.A. , Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  338-339. 

10  Literary  Digest,  (Editorial)  January  11,  1919. 


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-11- 

number  rapidly  advances  to  the  alarming  figure  of  48.4  per  cent 
in  Louisisuia.  The  percentage  of  illiterate  males  of  voting  age 
in  Washington  and  Nebraska  is  3.4  while  the  percentage  of  the 
same  class  in  Louisiana  reaches  to  38.6.^^  What  is  the  meaning 
of  this  long  array  of  statistics?  It  has  several  meanings,  such 
as  that  in  some  states  and  sections  of  the  United  States  the 
illiteracy  is  alarmingly  high,  that  the  traditional  public  school 
is  not  preparing  a vast  nmber  of  citizens  for  social  efficiency, 
and  that  something  must  be  done.  In  the  further  discussion  of 
the  continuation  school  reference  again  will  be  made  to  its 
effectiveness  as  an  agent  in  improving  conditions  both  at  home 
and  abroad, 

SecondJ^yy  the  public  school  as  it  is  traditionally 
organized  and  administered  is  unable  to  give  to  "all  the  children 
of  all  the  people"  the  fundamentals  which  educators  agree  they 
should  have.  The  foregoing  statistics  corroborate  this  point, 
but  further  light  may  be  thrown  upon  the  situation  (l)  by 
finding  out  what  those  fundamentals  are  and  (3)  by  making  a 
more  detailed  study  of  the  number  of  pupils  who  fall  by  the  way- 
side  before  these  aims  have  been  accomplished. 

The  Committee  on  The  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education 
of  the  National  Ed^-cational  Association  summarized  the  objectives 
of  education  in  a very  satisfactory  manner,  Inglis,  Bobbitt, 
and  others  have  set  up  similar  objectives,  A consensus  of 
opinion  seems  to  agree  that  the  citizens  of  today  should  be 
healthy,  that  they  should  have  a command  of  the  fundamental 

11  Bureau  of  Domestic  and  Foreign  Commerce,  Statistical  Abstract 
of  The  United  States,  1930,  69, 


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-12- 

processes,  that  they  should  attain  a worthy  home  membership, 
that  they  should  be  vocationally  efficient,  that  they  should 
have  high  ideals  of  the  obligations  and  duties  of  citizenship, 
that  they  should  know  how  to  use  their  leisure  time  in  a profit- 
able way,  and  that  they  should  be  of  good  moral  character. 

In  1913  Ayres  called  our  attention  to  the  fact  that  about 
twenty-six  per  cent  of  all  pupils  entering  school  did  not  finish 
the  eighth  grade  and  that  about  ninety-four  per  cent  did  not 
finish  high  school. More  recent  investigations  have  revealed 
the  fact  that  elimination  is  still  very  high,  even  though  pupils 
tend  to  remain  in  school  longer  than  formerly.  The  Commissioner 
of  Education  about  the  middle  of  the  last  decade  estimated  that 
of  every  one  thousand  pupils  who  entered  the  first  grade  in 
1906-1907,  about  11,7  per  cent  would  graduate  from  high  school 
and  1,5  per  cent  would  gradmte  from  college.  The  status  of 
elimination  in  different  communities  is  not  constant,  but  of 
course  this  should  be  inferred  from  a knowledge  of  the  status 
of  illiteracy  which  is  partially  caused  by  elimination.  Naturally 
pupils  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  remain  in  school  longer  than  pupils 
in  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. Bonner  states  that  17.8  per  cent 
of  the  pupils  of  school  age  are  not  enrolled  in  school  and  that 
44  per  cent  of  the  entire  school  term  in  1918  was  wasted  be- 
cause of  lack  of  attendance.^® 

12  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  35,  1918. 

13  Ayres,  Leonard  P.,  Laggards  in  Otar  Schools,  14  ff. 

14  Hill,  David  S.,  An  Introduction  to  Vocational  Education,  74-76 

15  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  11,  1921,  6 et  15-18, 


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-13- 

Why  do  so  many  pupils  leave  school  at  such  an  early  age 
with  so  little  preparation  for  living?  The  answers  to  this 
question  are  multitudinous  and  only  a few  of  the  most  Important 
reasons  are  incorporated  in  this  discussion,  (l)  The  limited 
range  of  instruction  offered  in  the  higher  grades  of  the 
elementary  school  and  in  many  of  the  secondary  schools  certainly 
is  a factor  to  be  taken  into  consideration,  in  any  argument  for 
more  thorough  education.  The  schools  are  gradually  adjusting 
themselves  in  this  regard  through  such  agencies  as  the  junior 
high  school  and  the  introduction  of  vocational  studies.  (3)  The' 
failure  of  some  communities  to  provide  suitable  facilities  for 
the  education  of  their  children  prevents  many  of  them  from 
obtaining  a more  thorough  education.  Such  communities  existed 
in  abundance  a few  years  ago  but  the  number  is  gradually  being 
lessened  through  legislation  and  equalization  of  opportunity 
and  costs.  Nevertheless  many  districts  today  contribute  to 
elimination  by  their  failure  to  provide  the  necessary  facilities 
for  their  young  people.  (3)  Aniother  reason  for  much  elimination 
is  the  failure  of  the  school  to  demonstrate  its  worth  to  the 
pupil  and  to  his  parents  when  lucrative  jobs  are  available.  This 
is  especially  true  in  an  industrial  community  such  as  the 
automobile  manufacturing  districts  of  Michigan.  Obviously  this 
cause  of  elimination  is  inseparable  from  (4)  the  desire  to 
obtain  spending  money.  The  lure  of  the  fruition  of  employment 
very  frequently  draws  the  child  from  school  into  industry.  In 
many  communities  an  instinctive  appeal  requires  his  work  in 
order  that  he  may  not  be  isolated  socially  from  his  fellows 


-14- 

beoause  they  have  spending  money  and  he  does  not.  (5)  The 
failure  of  a pupil  in  school  oftentimes  tends  to  antagonize 
him  against  the  institution.  The  repetition  of  the  grade  is 
without  interest.  Tardiness  and  absence  result  and  the  latter 
is  likely  to  become  perpetual,  (6)  Economic  pressure  either  real 
or  imaginary  is,  perhaps,  the  greatest  single  cause  of  elimination , 
Ayres  found  that  about  20  per  cent  of  the  children  who  in  the 
elementary  schools  of  six  large  cities  left  school  did  so  be- 
cause of  this  reason  alone  while  over  one-third  of  the  children 
who  left  the  high  schools  of  the  same  cities  did  so  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  going  to  work.^®  Economic  distress  is  a social 
evil  that  cannot  be  eradicated.  It  always  will  remain  a cause 
for  elimination  unless  legal  relief  can  be  obtained  in  such 
sufficiency  that  the  pupil  and  the  people  who  are  dependent 
partially  or  wholly  upon  him  will  be  able  to  live  without  his 
support. 

If  the  eliminated  pupil  is  followed  into  industry  his 
short-comings  cannot  but  be  noticed.  His  needs  show  the  import- 
ance of  the  continuation  school.  Why  not  force  him  back  into 
the  traditional  school  and  compel  him  to  remedy  hie  deficiencies? 
Such  an  idea  is  absolutely  preposterous.  If  he  belongs  to  the 
last  group  mentioned  above,  often  he  must  either  work,  starve, 
or  become  a public  charge,  and  he  can  choose  only  the  former.  If 
he  belongs  to  one  of  the  other  groups  his  presence  in  school, 
if  he  is  forced  to  be  there,  is  often  a menace  to  the  discipline 
and  progress  of  the  school.  Give  him  an  alternative  whose 
function  is  to  educate  him  while  he  works  is  the  argument  ad- 
vanced by  the  exponents  of  the  continuation  school, 

16  Ayres,  Leonard  P.,  Laggards  in  Our  Schools,  100  ff. 


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-15- 

Since  the  eliminated  child  has  not  been  educated  adequiately 
he  is  unable  to  secure  the  most  promising  industrial  positions. 
Hence,  he  must  accept  whatever  position  he  can  get,  a job  which 
the  better  trained  have  refused  and  which  has  little  or  no 
possibilities  for  the  future.  He  must  bdgln  at  the  bottom  of 
the  great  industrial  ladder  and  must  stay  there  unless  further 
education  is  provided  for  him.  Very  frequently  he  drifts  about 
from  one  "blind-alley "job  to  another  and  seldom  attains  his 
dwarfed  ambition.  Hill  made  an  investigation  which  is  valuable 
in  this  connection: 

"Twenty-five  cases  selected  by  the  writer  at  random  from 

among  more  than  a thousand  boys  under  fifteen  years  of  age, 

have  records  of  from  four  or  five  jobs  during  the  first  year 

out  of  school.  These  young  boys  stated  the  jobs  they  had  already 

tried  and  also  their  preference  or  'ambition*.  E,g.,  Bov  A: 

Errand  boy,  plumber's  helper,  office  boy,  in  grocery, -ambit ion, 

bookkeeper;  Bov  B:  Wagon  boy,  office  boy,  clerk  for  soap  company, 

17 

office  boy, -ambition,  civil  engineer;  Etc." 

The  oases  cited  above  are  representative  of  a legion  of 
others  which  show  the  hapless  wanderings  of  children  who  ought 
to  be  in  school.  Mays  suggests  that  only  about  twenty-five  in 
every  four  thousand  of  these  unprepared  children  hold  one  job 
longer  than  two  years.^®  The  great  tragedy  lies  not  so  much  in 
their  inability  to  progress  but  in  the  fact  that  there  is  not 

r 

sufficient  opportunity  given  for  them  to  learn  how  to  progress 
and  become  self-supporting  so  that  they  will  become  an  asset 

17  Hill,  David,  S.,  An  Introduction  to  Vocational  Education, 80-81. 

18  Mays,  A.B.,  Lecture  on  Continuation  School  Pupils. 


-16- 

rather  than  a liability  to  the  community  in  their  later  years. 

In  this  work  the  continuation  school  can  be  of  a great  service, 
Kerschensteiner  showed  that  in  Munich  it  really  was  of  much 
value  in  this  capacity.  He  g'ave  statistics  showing  that  in 
1890  about  1000  of  the  eighth  class  boys  went  into  "blin^.-alley” 
jobs,  while  in  1698  after  the  continuation  school  was  in  oper- 
ation only  250  went  the  same  road,  and  in  1908  only  50  entered 
the  "blind-alley”  trades. 

Thirdly,  the  prevalence  of  poverty  and  pauperism  makes  a 
more  urgent  demand  for  better  educational  results  not  only  in 
America,  but  throughout  the  world  as  well.  Towne  says,  "For  the 
country  as  a whole,  and  for  years  of  average  prosperity,  probably 
as  fair  an  estimate  as  we  can  make  is  that  about  15  per  cent  of 
all  the  people  are  living  in  poverty.  This  would  make  the  number 
in  the  United  States  today  about  fifteen  million,  including  of 
course  the  five  million  dependent  upon  some  form  of  public  re- 
lief."  In  speaking  of  the  causes  of  poverty  Ellwood  correctly 
asserts,  "Defects  in  our  educational  system  are  certainly  pro- 
ductive of  poverty.  Ignorant  and  illiterate  persons  are  much 
more  liable  to  become  dependent.  In  particular  the  lack  Of 
industrial  training  in  our  public  schools  is  a prolific  cause 
of  dependence  in  our  complex  industrial  civilization."’^^ 

The  continuation  school  offers  abundant  opportunity  for 
the  education  of  the  worker  along  industrial  lines  after  he  has 
become  engaged  in  industrial  pursuits.  It  is  an  institution 
limited  to  the  education  of  this  large  group  of  people  and  it 

19  Best,  R.H.,  and  Ogden,  C.K.,  The  Problem  of  The  Continuation 
School,  29-30, 

20  Towne,  E.T.,  Social  Problems,  289. 

21  Ellwood,  C.A.,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  309. 


-17- 

is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  performance  of  this  vital  work. 

No  claim  is  made  that  the  continuation  school  will  blot  out 
poverty  and  pauperism  because  many  factors  enter  into  the 
production  of  these  social  evils.  Many  cases  are  purely  patho- 
logical and  can  be  treated  on  no  other  basis;  and  such  a case 
is  outside  the  province  of  the  continuation  school  which  is 
an  agency  destined  to  contribute  a large  share  to  minimizing 
these  evils  by  assisting  in  destroying  the  causes  for  their 
existence. 

Fotirthly,  the  extent  of  poor  health  and  physical  in- 
capacity shows  that  instruction  in  preventive  and  corrective 
measures  should  not  be  limited  to  the  elementary  school  but 
that  it  should  be  continued  even  after  the  worker  has  entered 
upon  his  vocation.  The  Selective  Service  Act  operating  in  the 
Great  War  revealed  the  fact  that  about  fifty  per  cent  of 
Americans  best  manhood  were  unfit  pnysically  to  serve  their 
coiintry,^^  Since  a large  part  of  these  physical  disabilities 
could  have  been  prevented  if  attempted  in  time  the  continuation 
school  has  a function  in  this  respect.  It  can  educate  along 
preventive  and  remedial  lines  in  regard  to  disease  and  accidents. 
Inasmuch  as  the  mortality  rate  of  young  children  and  adults 
over  forty-five  years  of  age  is  so  much  higher  than  that  of 
those  people  who  come  under  the  provisions  of  the  Selective 
Service  Act  the  findings  of  these  results  are  likely  to  be  too 
low  for  the  entire  population  of  the  United  States. 

22  U.S.  Surgeon  General's  Office,  Defects  found  in  Drafted  Men, 
1920,  29  et  73. 

23  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  Statistical  Abstract 
of  The  United  States,  1920,  80-81. 


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-18- 

The  workers  in  industry  should  know  how  to  avoid  accidents 
whose  numbers  are  appallingly  high.  At  least  thirty-five  thousand 
workmen  are  killed  and  two  million  are  injured  in  industrial 
accidents  annually.  An  estimate  states  that  at  least  one-half  of 
these  accidents  can  be  avoided  if  proper  instructions  are  given 
to  the  laboring  population.^"^  The  experience  of  the  writer  in  the 
coal  mining  district  of  the  Middle  West  shows  that  any  instruction 
as  to  dangerous  parts  of  the  mines,  such  as  "old  works"'  that  have 
been  bratticed  off,  is  only  casual.  Explosions  occur  as  a result 
of  gas  ignition  in  such  districts.  The  $62, 500,000  and  the  man 
power  that  could  be  saved  by  such  prevention  would  go  far  to- 
wards financing  the  continuation  schools  which  among  other 
agencies  would  teach  prevention  and  employ  corrective  measures 
wherever  needed. 

Flfthla&i  the  inability  of  the  common  people  to  adjust  them- 
selves when  a transfer  of  jobs  is  made  is  an  argument  for  some 
kind  of  specific  instruction  whereby  the  worker  can  learn  the 
job  at  the  time  when  he  is  employed  at  it.  This  maladjustment  of 
workers  is  especially  noticeable  during  a period  of  financial 
and  labor  depression.  The  crisis  of  1931  is  highly  illustrative 
in  this  connection.  Nearly  every  metropolitan  newspaper  spoke 
often  and  at  length  of  the  serious  condition  and  at  the  same  time 
printed  advertisements  of  "HELP  WANTED",  Certainly  none  would 
accuse  the  newspapers  of  inconsistency  in  their  actions.  The 
trouble  lies  in  the  fact  that  industry  is  so  highly  specialized 
that  the  task  of  transferring  from  one  job  to  another  is  usually 
very  difficult  and  if  the  industrial  concern  does  not  teach  its 

24  Towns,  E,  T.,  Social  Problems, -356. 


-19- 

new  employees,  with  few  exceptions  they  must  learn  for  them- 
selves. Very  frequently  the  joh  or  trade  oannot  be  mastered  alone; 
or  in  a short  time.  Hence,  the  laborer  who  is  idle  cannot  in 
many  oases  even  obtain  the  position. 

Yet  there  exist  a great  many  .jobs  and  trades  which  can 
be  learned  in  a short  time  if  instruction  is  available  while  work 
is  being  done.  Various  firms  are  too  small  to  profitably  main- 
tain a training  school  for  their  employees  and  very  frequently 
they  have  vacancies  which  can  be  filled  by  many  persons  if  some 
way  were  provided  for  their  learning  how  to  perform  the  duties 
of  the  particular  job  or  trade.  Again  the  continuation  school 
has  an  urgent  duty  to  perform.  It  is  valiiable  in  this  respect 
not  only  in  periods  of  depression  and  in  oases  of  seasonal 
fluctuations  in  the  demand  for  labor,  but  also  in  irregular 
oases  of  emplpyment  in  sundry  industries.  It  cannot  eliminate 
but  it  can  lessen  the  great  \inemployment  evil, 

^xthly,  the  passage  of  the  Lever  Act  and  of  the  Sedition 
Acts  during  the  late  struggle  with  the  Central  Powers  was  an 
action  which  in  ipso  recognized  the  necessity  of  education  for 
democracy.  Perhaps  one  of  the  principal  reasons  for  the  passage 
of  these  laws  as  well  as  of  some  others  was  the  enormous 
immigration  of  the  "newer  type",  which  came  is  such  large  numbers 
prior  to  the  outbreak  of  the  European  conflict,  and  which  is 
coming  again  as  fast  as  is  permissible.  These  people  most  of 
whom  are  uneducated  collect  in  some  sections  of  the  large  cities 
and  settle  in  communities  in  the  smaller  ones  until  nearly  every 
industrial  center  of  importance  has  Its  "’Italy",  "'Austria?  and 
other  communal  epithets.  If  these  people  are  to  become  American 


-20- 

they  must  be  taught  Americanism,  The  continuation  school  can  be 
of  vital  assistance  in  this  great  movement  for  Americanization. 

It  is  true  that  in  its  present  form  the  continuation  school 
reaches  the  adults  more  indirectly  than  directly,  but  the  reaching 
of  the  young  immigrants  and  of  the  immigrants'  children  who  are 
between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  eighteen  is  notably  worthwhile, 

Americanization  is  not  limited  to  immigrants  alone:  neither 
should  it  be  under  present  conditions.  The  continuation  school 
can  be  of  service  among  many  native-born  Aflierioans,  "Really  to 

Vs 

Americanize  America  we  must  reach  the  native-born  and  the 
immigrant,  the  adult  and  the  child  in  school;  and  incidentally 
our  task  of  Americanizing  the  newcomer  will  be  rendered  com- 
paratively easy  if  we  can  but  succeed  first  in  Americanizing 
ourselves, The  gradual  extension  of  the  suffrage  implies  a 
wider  use  of  it , No  other  agency,  perhaps,  will  have  a better 
chance  to  teach  the  adolescent  in  industry  his  rights  and  duties 
toward  his  neighbor,  community,  state,  and  nation  than  the  con- 
tinuation school,  because  it  has  an  opportunity  to  reach  a great 
number  of  people  who  have  not  learned  the  fundamental  principles 
of  democracy  elsewhere.  Indeed,  civic  instruction  occupies  an 
important  place  in  the  curriculum  of  the  continuation  school, 

Seveifthly,  education  for  leisure  time  is  a problem  whose 
importance  is  becoming  widely  recognized.  Pound  says,  "Education 
for  leisure,  under  the  conditions  of  automatic  production,  is 

education  for  life What  is  the  first  requirement  for  the 

right  use  of  leisure  7 Self-restraint Need  for  self-restraint 

increases  in  proportion  to  affluence ... .It  follows  that  knowledge, 

Mahoney,  J.J.,  "Training  Teachers  for  Americanization",  Bureau 
of  Education  Bulletin  No.  12,  192Q,.  14. 


-21- 

as  the  chief  restraining  influence  in  the  youthful  mind,  is  the 
substitute  that  education  must  establish  in  place  of  the  set  of 
controls  which  formerly  resulted  from  the  young  man’s  poverty 
or  fear  of  poverty,"'^®  Pound  proceeds  to  point  out  that  the  child 
should  be  taught  thrift,  ideas  of  law,  history,  literature, 
science,  art,  and  music  because  they  give  a meaning  to  life  and 
an  inspiration  to  leisure.  ^Finally,  there  should  be  a complete 
system  of  continuation  schools  wherein  those  who  desire  to  use 
their  labor-bought  leisure,  by  securing  further  instruction  could 
be  accomodated  on  their  own  time.  All  graduates  presumably  will 
have  been  so  far  inoculated  with  the  intellectual  virus  that 
th&j  will  go  on  improving  their  minds  at  lei sure « to  some  extent 
thus  demonstrating  on  a wide  scale  that  education  is  not  a matter 
of  youth,  but  of  life,*^^ 

Qonsiderable  credit  is  due  the  public  schools  for  what 
they  have  done  for  the  cultural  growth  ef  America*  but  observation 
shows  that  much  still  remains  to  be  done*  Many (people  do  not  know 

the  joys  of  a life  of  intellectual  appreciation^  they  remain  out- 
side the  realms  of  good  music,  literature,  dramatics,  painting 
and  sculpture.  The  "’jazz”,  yellow  literature,  the  public  dance, 
movies,  gambling,  chewing  gum,  and  red  lemonade  have  strong 
attractions  which  should  be  eliminated  or  at  least  controlled. 

This  can  be  done  only  by  means  of  a positive  program.  Since  the 
class  of  people  to  whom  these  lighter  attractions  most  appeal 
are  those  who  have  not  learned  self-restraint,  several  agencies 
should  be  set  to  work  to  teach  them  to  control  their  appetites, 
passions,  and  desires.  T^e  children  between  the  ages  of  fourteen 

and  eighteen  who  are  forming  ideals  of  conduct  which  are  lasting, 

26  Pound, Arthur, "The  Iron  Man", Atlantic  Monthly,  Oct . 1921. 438-A49* 

27  Ibid.,  441.  * 


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-22- 

should  have  positive  programs  placed  before  them.  No  agency  is 
better  fitted  to  reach  that  part  of  these  youngsters  who  have 
severed  relations  with  the  regular  day  school  and  have  entered 
industry  than  the  continuation  school.  The  crusade  must  be  begun 
before  long  and  the  continuation  school  must  be  considered  as 
one  of  the  agencies  whose  aid  can  be  utilized. 

Sightly, the  problem  of  the  conservation  of  the  natural 
resources  of  the  United  States  in  the  last  few  years  has  attained 
a position  of  much  prominence.  The  federal  government  has  carried 
through  a magnificent  program  for  the  continuous  conservation  of 
certain  forests  and  timber  reserves.  It  also  has  reclaimed  vast 
tracts  of  land  by  great  irrigation  projects  and  has  made  a wider 
acreage  possible  by  the  drainage  of  certain  marsh  lands.  Only  the 
beginning  has  been  made;  the  federal  and  state  governments  must 
go  still  further.  They  owe  a duty  to  the  future  generations  of 
this  great  republic  to  conserve  the  other  natural  resources  which 
so  abundantly  bless  its  vast  domain.  The  conservation  of  peat, 
petroleum,  natural  gas,  the  metals,  and  their  products  is  a more 
difficult  problem.  If  exploitations  in  these  products  should 
continue  at  the  same  rate  as  at  present  for  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years  the  supply  would  almost,  if  not  completely,  be  exhausted.^® 
Such  luxuries  as  pleasure-riding,  superfluous  lighting,  and  waste 
orf  fuel,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  should  be  checked  by 
volimtary  action.  The  continuation  school  promises  to  have  a 
prominent  part  in  this  program  due  to  the  fact  that  it  reaches  a 
class  which  does  not  have  a knowledge  of  the  consequences  of  such 
waste  and  exploitation,  or  if  they  do  who  take  the  attitude  of 
Louis  XV  of  France,  "After  us,  the  deluge."^ 

28  Towns,  E.T.,  Social  Problems,  322. 


-23- 

Ninethly,  obedience  to  oommon  social  principles  which  have 
been  app'r^ed  by  society  is  an  ideal  which  is  fundamental  to  a 
democracy  as  well  as  to  any  other  social  organization.  If  the 
ethical  is  the  Ideal  aspect  of  behavior  certainly  public  opinion 
must  be  enlightened.  The  continuation  school  has  a tremendous 
advantage  of  many  other  institutions  as  an  agency  for  inculc&ting 
morality.  It  reaches  a great  multitude  that  hardly  can  be  reached 
in  any  other  manner,  some  of  whom  belong  either  to  the  immoral 
class  or  the  unmoral  class.  Perhaps  at  the  critical  period  of 
life  the  right  kind  of  moral  instructions  would  save  to  society 
many  lives  of  usefulness  as  well  as  large  economic  returns  and 
money  that  as  a result  of  law-breaking  would  be  expended  for  re- 
proof and  reformation. 

If  the  great  hypothesis  that  moral  development  depends  to 
a large  extent  upon  intellectual  growth  is  true,  it  logically 
follows  that  society  must  have  the  maximum  of  education  in  order 
to  possess  the  highest  ethics,  other  things  being  equal  or 
approximately  so.  Then  if  intellectual  growth  and  education  are 
synonymous  the  continuation  school  is  justifiable  on  purely 
intelleot\ial  grounds  because  it  can  give  to  many  adolescent 
workers  education  that  they  will  not  get  unless  they  get  it  in 
the  continuation  school  or  in  some  substitute  for  it.  The  social 
studies  offer  abundant  opportunity  for  the  teaching  of  obedience 
both  to  civil  and  to  moral  laws,  not  as  pure  abstractions  but  as 
real  truths  existing  in  a social  environment. 

No  argument  is  advanced  in  this  thesis  that  the  primary 
function  of  the  continuation  school  is  to  teach  religion,  but 
this  institution  can  aid  materially  in  giving  proper  ideals  of 


24- 


conduct,  be  they  either  ethical  or  religious.  Neither  do  the 
promoters  of  the  continuation  school  claim  that  it  is  a panacea 
for  the  social  evils  that  have  been  mentioned  in  the  foregoing 
pages,  nor  that  it  will  cure  any  one  of  them.  Nevertheless  it  is 
peculiarly  fitted  to  reach  many  people  who  hardly  can  be  reached 
throng  any  other  source.  As  this  institution  exists  today  it 
can  do  much  to  improve  the  efficiency  of  the  social  group.  As  it 
should  exist  when  it  shall  be  fully  grown,  it  will  have  an 
opportunity  to  reach  nearly  every  home  in  the  land  and  to  assist 
the  intellectual  group  as  well  as  that  group  which  it  now  serves 
so  successfully  where  it  is  established. 

Arguments  against  The  Continuation  School  Refuted 

The  opponents  of  the  continuation  school  claim  that  its 
existence  will  be  an  excuse  for  certain  pupils*  leaving  the 
traditional  school  sooner  than  they  otherwise  would  do.  Their 
parents  may  be  led  to  believe  that  their  children  oan  profit 
from  the  continuation  school  as  much  as  from  the  older  schools; 
and  therefore,  they  will  encourage  attendance  at  the  continuation 
school  when,  if  it  did  not  exist,  they  would  not  consent  to  their 
children* s leaving  school.  Hence,  instead  of  adding  to  the  social 
efficiency  of  the  nation  the  continuation  school  would  be  de- 
tracting from  it.  In  order  to  test  the  validity  of  this  argument 
which,  if  true,  would  seriously  handicap  the  growth  of  this 
institution  and  lessen  its  efficiency  the  author  made  a rather 
wide  inquiry  into  this  matter  in  Illinois,  The  results  were  sur- 
prising because  the  principals  in  every  case  testified  that  no 


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-25- 

such  a case  had  ever  oome  to  their  knowledge  in  their  respective 
schools.  On  the  other  hand  they  stated  that  they  knew  of  several 
instances  where  the  continuation  school  was  the  means  that  had 
led  a goodly  number  of  pupils  who  had  left  the  regular  schools, 
back  into  that  institution  which  they  had  so  willingly  or  re- 
luctantly left  not  many  days  or  months  previously. 

In  the  second  place,  the  argument  is  advanced  that  the 
continuation  school  will  increase  the  tax  rate  materially.  This 
argument  cannot  wholly  be  refuted  but  it  can  be  answered  partially 
in  that  the  children  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  eighteen 
who  are  in  industry  are  entitled  to  have  as  much  money  spent  on 
their  education  per  capita  in  proportion  to  the  restilts  obtained 
as  the  children  who  regularly  or  irregularly  attend  the  elementary 
or  the  high  schools.  Again,  much  of  the  work  done  by  the  pupils 
can  be  placed  on  a production  basis  so  that  the  returns  of  it 
will  be  a means  for  the  partial  support  of  the  institution.  A part 
of  the  seemingly  high  cost  is  eliminated  frequently  by  the  inaugur- 
ation of  certain  continuation  schools  in  the  plants  of  industrial 
concerns,  as  is  done  in  the  packing  industry  of  Chicago.  In  such 
cases  usually  the  corporation  furnishes  the  rooms,  equipment,  and 
supplies  while  the  local  district  is  required  to  furnish  a part 
or  all  of  the  teaching  corps  (.  and  occasionally  some  or  all  of 
the  equipment  and  supplies) . As  a safeguard  in  the  interest  of 
the  public  the  schools  thus  established  are  usually  made  a part 
of  the  local  school  system  subject  to  its  inspection  and  direction. 

The  maintenance  of  both  of  the  above  objections  at  the 
same  time  is  inconsistent  since  the  former  presupposes  that  the 
pupils  are  drawn  from  the  regular  school  while  the  latter  assumes 


1 


-26- 

that  very  few  are  thus  obtained  or  that  the  per  capita  cost  in 
the  continuation  school  is  far  more  than  it  is  in  the  elementary 
and  high  schools.  It  may  be  true  that  some  pupils  will  be  drawn 
from  the  all-day  schools  as  a result  of  the  establishment  of 
continuation  schools  and  it  certainly  is  true  that  the  expense 
of  the  continuation  schools  must  be  met.  However,  the  added  ex- 
pense will  result  more  from  the  entrance  of  pupils  who  are  not 
in  school  at  all  than  from  those  who  transfer  from  the  all-day 
schools.  If  the  opposite  were  the  case,  the  continuation  school 
could  not  be  justified.  Some  increase  in  expenses  will  result 
and  public  taxation  will  be  used  in  most  oases  to  pay  the  bills, 
even  though  the  amount  required  for  this  purpose  is  considerably 
less  than  that  required  to  maintain  the  regular  schools.  This 
is  a practical  situation.  If  the  people  want  the  continuation 
school  are  they  willing  to  pay  for  it? 

In  the  third  place  an  argument  can  well  be  advanced 
that  such  a curriculum  in  the  junior  and  senior  high  schools, 
as  some  few  of  the  advocates  of  this  objection  favor,  would 
accomplish  the  same  results  as  the  continuation  school  and  at  a 
less  expense.  Such  an  innovation  does  not  differ  from  the  con- 
tinuation school.  Both  have  the  same  aims  and  employ  like  means 
in  accomplishing  them.  Since  the  organization  of  the  continuation 
school  differs  so  widely  in  different  cities  the  upshot  of  the 
whole  argument  is  that  the  opponents  who  advance  this  argument 
are  advancing  the  continuation  school  idea  and  are  contending 

for  a principle  that  the  author  lays  down  in  a following  chapter.^ 

K fourth  argument  against  the  continuation  school  is 

that  teachers  who  are  properly  qualified  cannot  be  obtained.  There 
29  Infra,  106  ff . 


ft 


-27- 


is  some  truth  in  this  eirgument.  At  the  present  time  the  demand 
for  teachers  with  the  requisites  necessary  for  success  in  the 
continuation  school  has  not  been  created  sufficiently.  It  is 
axiomatic  that  such  a supply  will  never  exist  until  such  a 
demand  has  been  made.  A similar  argument  was  advanced  in 
California  against  the  bill  which  provided  that  a year  of  ad- 
vanced work  beyond  the  bachelor* s degree  should  be  a requisite^ 
for  high  school  certification,  but  the  bill  became  a law  and 
during  the  Great  War  when  other  states  were  needing  high  school 
teachers,  California  was  supplied  pretty  adequately.  Two  reasons 
were  primarily  responsible  for  this  situation;  In  the  first 
place  teachers  were  imported  from  other  states;  and  in  the 
second  place  more  teaching  timber  was  attracted  because  of  the 
resultant  better  conditions.  Certainly  the  economic  laws  of 
supply  and  demand  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  this  problem.  Since  the  history  of  the  continuation 
school  movement  shows  that  its  adoption  has  been  gradual  the 
problem  of  teacher  shortage  is  less  acute  than  it  would  be  if 
the  movement  became  instantly  cosmopolitan.  When  all  factors 
are  weighed  and  the  balance  is  struck,  if  the  fact  is  kept  in 
mind  that  our  normal  schools  and  universities  can  train  men  and 
women  who  desire  a career  in  this  field,  the  problem  becomes  far 
less  serious. 

Another  argument  which  is  advanced  against  the  con- 
tinuation school  again  refers  to  the  teacher  situation*  A con- 
tention is  made  that  this  institution  will  draw  the  best  teachers- 
from  the  elementary  and  high  schools.  This  is  true  to  a certain 
extent  and,  perhaps,  it  should  not  be  lamented  as  much  as  seems 


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-28- 


to  be  the  case.  The  adolescent  in  the  continuation  school  needs 
a superior  type  of  teacher  just  as  much  as,  if  not  more  than, 
the  adolescent  in  the  junior  and  senior  high  schools.  The  with- 
drawal of  some  of  the  best  teachers  from  the  latter  schools 
will  make  a greater  demand  for  more  superior  teachers  in  these 
institutions.  As  a result  better  conditions  are  likely  to  follow 
and  this  means  that  better  timber  will  be  attracted  into  the 
common  schools.  Every  teacher  should  work  where  she  can  do  the 
greatest  service  and  it  is  the  problem  of  the  administration  to 
effect  this  condition.  This  objection  seems  to  be  so  closely 
connected  with  the  preceding  one  that  the  remedy  in  the  former 
will  apply  equally  well  to  the  latter. 

An  argument  which  was  expounded  a few  years  ago  but 
which  seems  to  have  much  less  weight  today  is  that  the  con- 
tinuation school  creates  class  distinctions  and  makes  more 
marked  those  classes  which  already  have  been  created.  The  ex- 
perience of  Germany  was  cited  as  proof  but  little  consideration 
was  given  to  the  basic  educational  plan  provided  by  that  c'ountry. 
The  experience  of  the  American  system,  on  the  contrary,,  tends 
to  show  that  the  pupil  has  really  more  liberty  in  the  choice 
of  a vocation  if  he  attend  a continuation  school  than  if  he 
pursue  the  regular  course  in  the  traditional  schools.  This  is 
true  because  the  latter  usually  prepares  for  college  while  the 
former  prepares  for  an  immediate  vocational  career  as  well  as 
for  the  responsibilities  of  citizenship.  It  tends  to  prevent 
the  pupil  from  falling  into  the  "Iblind  alley"'  class  and  to 
make  out  of  him  a citizen  worthy  of  his  community. 


-29- 

Pttxhaps  the  greatest  argument  against  the  continuation 

school  is  the  fact  that  funds  are  not  available  at  the  present 

time  and  that  the  legislators  are  afraid  to  take  a stand  for 

any  movement  that  can  be  construed  as  financially  dangerous  to 

their  constituents.  This  condition  has  been  a great  stumbling 

block  in  the  way  of  the  progress  of  this  institution.  The  lament- 

30 

able  experience  of  Illinois  bears  witness  to  this  fact. 

Perhaps  the  best  answer  that  has  been  given  to  this  objection 
is  that  taxation  more  nearly  equalized  would  provide  for  the 
support  of  the  continuation  school  without  material  injury  to 
the  other  educational  institutions  or  to  the  public.  Except  some 
readjustment  takes  place  it  seems  that  the  only  hope  for  the 
success  of  an  universal  acceptance  of  this  institution  lies 
in  the  legislators  of  the  various  states  whom  only  time  and 
experience  must  convince. 

The  Function  of  The  Continuation  School 

In  its  broadest  sense,  the  continuation  school  should 
give  the  pupil  whatever  instruction  he  needs  to  make  him  socially 
efficient.  This  much  may  have  been  inferred  already  from  the 
foregoing  discussion  of  the  needs  that  justify  the  existence  of 
this  very  important  institution.  It  is  an  agency  designed  to 
educate  the  pupils  who  attend  it  while  they  are  employed  and 
at  the  same  time  to  induce  them  to  seek  more  education. 

The  problem  of  continuing  the  education  of  the  pupil 
is  very  closely  related  to  the  problem  of  making  him  socially 
efficient.  Few  people  are  likely  to  deny  the  fact  that  the 
juvenile  worker  who  comes  from  the  traditional  public  school 


30  Infra,  51  et  ff. 


1 


I 


-30- 

at  the  age  of  fourteen  ought  to  have  more  education.  Seldom 
does  he  have  a command  of  the  fundamental  principles  that  are 
necessary  for  a complete  life,  because  he  has  attained  only  a 
part  of  those  educational  objectives  which  society  deems 
necessary  for  success.  Hence,  he  is  in  need  of  further  education 
and  it  is  the  function  of  the  continuation  school  to  furnish  it 
to  him  in  such  substance  and  quantity  as  he  most  needs  and 
desires.  It  trains  the  worker  to  do  his  task  better  if  his 
interests  lie  in  the  field  in  which  he  is  employed.  Frequently, 
it  shows  him  that  he  has  the  ability  to  advance  to  a higher 
position  for  which  it  continues  to  prepare  him.  In  either  cas«p 
it  has  a specific  function  to  perform  by  increasing  his  fund 
of  general  knowledge. 

This  .modern  educational  institution  intends  to 
educate  the  young  workers  in  industry  under  public  direction 
and  at  public  expense.  The  training  usually  being  general  as 
well  as  specific  does  not  produce  a stereotyped  product,  a 
worker  who  cannot  transfer  from  one  field  to  another,  as  does 
that  of  the  average  privately  owned  schools  which  are  con- 
ducted solely  by  large  industrial  corporations.  This  assures 
the  pupil  of  an  equal  industrial  opportunity  in  the  sense  that 
his  training  will  not  make  him  wholly  dependent  on  some  great 
industrial  firm  or  set  of  corporations. 

The  continuation  school  is  designed  to  give  the  youth 
who  has  left  school  because  of  economic  pressure  further  education. 
Unless  elimination  which  results  from  pecuniary  necessity  shall 
be  ended  by  legislation  which  shall  provide  for  the  family  or 
for  at  least  the  child  and  for  those  people  who  are  dependent 


-31- 


upon  him  for  support  and  which  shall  provide  a fund  that  will 
sustain  life  during  the  time  required  for  the  completion  of  his 
elementary  and  preferably  his  secondary  school  work  some  in- 
stitution must  be  utilized  which  will  enable  him  to  earn  a 
livelihood  and  at  the  same  time  contribute  to  the  support  of 
those  persons  who  are  dependent  upon  him  during  the  time  that 
he  is  obtaining  an  acceptable  education.  In  this  respect  the 
continuation  school  serves  a rather  unique  purpose. 

Dewey  thinks  that  one  of  the  real  values  of  any 
education  is  the  effect  that  it  produces  on  the  subject  by  causing 
him  to  advance  further  into  the  educational  realm. If  this 
is  a true  criterion  of  the  value  of  an  educatioml  institution 
certainly  the  continuation  school  must  rank  very  high.  In  the 
first  place  the  pupils  continue  their  educational  advancement 
in  the  continuation  school  which  is  not  infinitely  separated 
from  the  school  of  life.  Then  pursuing  the  zeal  which  has  been 
developed  further  in  their  stay  in  the  continuation  school, 
sometimes  ohey  enter  the  technical  school,  specialize  in  some 
important  line  of  work,  and  become  citizens  who  are  valuable 
assets  to  their  communities.  A large  mmber  of  these  pupils  are 
shown  the  value  of  a liberal  education  and  their  own  possibilities. 
As  a result,  they  often  enter  the  full-day  school  with  a better 
knowledge  of  what  industrial  life  is  and  with  a determination 
to  prepare  themselves  for  their  station  in  society. Hence 
through  the  agency  of  the  continuation  school  many  people  re- 
ceive an  education  much  higher  than  they  would  have  received  had 

31  Dewey,  John,  Democracy  and  Education,  62. 

32  Supra,  25. 


-32« 


it  not  been  for  their  connection  with  this  very  valuable  in- 
st itution. 

The  specific  functions  which  the  continuation  people 
claim  for  their  institution  are:  that  the  pupils  are  taught 
how  to  better  perform  the  tasks  which  they  have  to  do  in  the 
industrial  world,  if  their  positions  are  commensurate  with  their 
abilities;  that  many  are  led  into  and  prepared  for  higher 
positions,  if  the  ones  in  which  they  are  employed  are  incommen- 
surate with  their  abilities;  that  a large  number  of  pupils  are 
led  back  into  the  full-time  schools;  and  that  all  are  better 
prepared  for  their  stations  in  this  great  democratic  society. 

Summary  and  Conclusion 

All  education  is  an  evolutionary  process  which  is 
determined  by  the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  society.  A widespread 
opinion  has  been  current  for  a long  time  that  everybody  should 
have  an  equalized  educational  opportunity.  The  desire  to  makie 
this  opportunity  accessible  to  those  people  who  have  left  the 
school  and  entered  into  industry  may  be  called  the  "continuation 
idea.*”  However,  the  realization  of  it  is  far  in  the  future,  but 
the  continuation  school  which  generally  is  limited  to  juvenile 
workers  is  one  step  in  advance  towards  the  realization  of  the 
"continuation  idea’,"'  even  though  this  school  is  embryotic  in 
form.  This  institution  has  been  variouly  defined;  as  it  is 
here  used  in  a narrow  sense  it  is  a school  that  during  working 
hours  provides  education  for  persons,  usually  minors,  who  are 
gainfully  employed  and  who  are  not  attending  the  regular  day- 
school.  It  is  a part-time  school. 


1 


-33- 

The  prevalence  of  illiteracy,  the  enormous  elimination 
from  the  traditional  public  schools,  the  large  amount  of  poverty 
and  pauperism,  the  universal  extent  of  ppor  health  and  physical 
incapacity,  the  general  lack  of  efficiency  among  workers,  the 
widespread  need  of  civic,  and  social  education,  the  cosmopolitan 
misuse  of  leisure  time,  the  ecumenical  need  for  conservation  of 
natural  and  human  resources,  the  deficiency  in  the  moral  con- 
duct of  many  citizens  justify  the  existence  of  an  institution 
that  will  educate  the  industrial  population  along  the  lines  of 
right  living  and  social  efficiency.  The  continuation  school  is 
peculiarly  fitted  to  assist  in  the  prevention  and  elimination 
of  many  common  social  evils  as  well  as  to  prepare  for  industrial 
success,  despite  the  attacks  made  upon  it  by  its  enemies  who 
argue  that  it  would  tend  to  increase  elimination,  that  it  would 
materially  increase  the  tax  rate,  that  the  functions  claimed 
for  it  can  be  accomplished  as  well  in  the  schools  that  now  exist, 
that  properly  qualified  teachers  cannot  be  obtained,  that  the 
now  existing  schools  would  be  harmed  by  the  transfer  of  their 
best  teachers  to  the  continuation  school,  that  it  would  promote 
class  distinctions  and  thereby  be  undemocratic,  and  that  funds 
for  its  maintenance  are  not  available  and  cannot  be  obtained. 
This  long  train  of  argument  against  the  continuation  school 
seems  to  be  partly  refuted  from  theoretical  considerations  and 
the  experience  of  those  communities  that  have  inaugurated  a 
scheme  of  continuation  education  apparently  throws  the  weight 
of  evidence  on  the  side  of  this  institution. 


-34- 

Selected  Bibliography. 

XAYres,  Leonard  P.,  Laggards  in  Our  Schools 

Best,  R.  H.  and  Ogden,  C,K.,The  Problem  of  the  Continuation  School. 
Briggs,  Thomas  H.,  The  Junior  High  School 

Bureau  of  Domestic  and  Foreign  Commerce,  Statistical  Abstract 
of  The  United  States,  1920  (See  United  States,  etc.) 

Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  No,  35,  1918,  Cardinal  Principles 
of  Secondary  Education  (See  United  States,  etc.) 

Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  No,  5,  1921,  Part-Time  Education 
of  Various  Types  (See  United  States,  etc.) 

Cooley,  Edwin  G,,  Public  Continuation  Schools, 

/Cooley,  Edwin  G.,  Vocational  Education  in  Europe 
'f.Dewey,  John,  Democracy  and  Education 
Editorial  in  Literary  Digest,  Jan.  11,  1919  "'What  The  Draft 
Revealed" 

Ellwood,  C,A,,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems 
■/Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Bulletin  No,  19,  1918, 
Part-Time  Trade  and  Industrial  Education 
Graves,  Frank  P,,  A'  Student’s  History  of  Education 
^Hill,  David  S.,  An  Introduction  to  Vocational  Education 
Lutz,  R,R,,  Wage  Earning  and  Education 

'‘Mahoney,  J.J.,  Training  Teacher  for  Americanization,  Bureau  of 
Education  Bulletin,  No,  12,  1920 
Mays,  A,B,,  Lectures  on  Continuation  School  Pupils^ 

Miller,  H.A, , The  School  and  The  Immigrant 

Pound,  Arthur,  in  Atlantic  Monthly  Oct.,  1921, "The  Iron  Man" 


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-35- 


^ Sneddon,  David,  Vocational  Education 
i^Taylor,  Joseph  S.,  A Handbook  for  Vocational  Education 
Towne,  E,T,,  Social  Problems 

United  States,  Sxirgeon  General *s  Office,  Defects  Found  in 
Drafted  Men. 


t 


Chapter  II 

A Brief  Survey  of  The  Continuation  School  Movement 

The  German  Continuation  School 

The  history  of  the  continuation  movement  in  Germany  may 

be  traced  back  to  the  Sunday  Schools  of  the  sixteenth  century,^ 

In  these  institutions  instruction  in  church  catechism,  reading, 

and  writing  was  given  to  pupils  after  they  had  left  the  elementary 

schools  as  well  as  to  those  pupils  who  were  unable  to  attend 

o 

the  regular  elementary  schools.*^  Sunday  gohool  attendance  be«> 
came  compulsory  in  V/urtemburg  in  1739  and  in  Bavaria  in  1803. 

In  the  latter  stats  a certificate  stating  that  the  candidate 
had  completed  his  course  in  the  Sunday  School  was  a prerequisite 
to  marriage.  Frequently  education  of  this  sort  in  this  in- 
stitution was  all  that  a young  man  was  able  to  obtain,  because 
of  the  fact  that  his  domestic  duties  made  attendance  at  the 
week-day  school  impossible.  However,  due  to  the  lack  of  school 
facilities  and  properly  trained  teachers  the  laws  were  not 
strictly  enforced.  In  Saxony  from  1835  to  1859  the  enforcement 
of  compulsory  attendance  laws  was  fairly  successful,  but  the 
growing  universality  of  elementary  education  put  a temporary 
end  to  this  early  form  of  continuation  school.^  Some  ten  years 
later,  the  movement  was  revived, "Under  the  terms  of  the »Regulat ior 
of  Industry*'  of  1869,  employers  were  compelled  to  allow  their 

1 Cooley,  E.G.,  Vocational  Education  in  Europe,  78. 

2 Sadler,  M.E.,  Continuation  Schools  in  England  and  Elsewhere, 520, 
3. Ibid..,  521. 


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-37- 


workmen  under  eighteen  years  of  age  to  attend  a recognised 
continuation  school,  and  the  communes  were  empowered  to 
frame  bye-laws  making  attendance  at  such  schools  obligatory 
on  all  workmen  under  eighteen!T^  Under  the  influence  of  the 
Society  for  The  Extension  of  Popular  Education  schools  were 
quickly  established;  especially  was  this  true  in  the  larger 
cities.  So  great  was  the  movement  that  the  success  of  Germany 
in  the  Franco-Prussian  wer  was  attributed  to  some  extent  to 

5 

the  success  of  the  new  continuation  schools  of  the  Fatherland. 

The  continuance  of  the  German  Empire’s  rapid  growth  seemed  to 
depend  on  its  ability  to  keep  pace  with  the  industrial  de- 
velopment of  England,  but  this  result  was  accomplished  largely 
through  the  teaching  of  trades  in  the  continuation  schools. 

The  outcome  made  the  continuation  school  a popular  institution 
and  caused  it  to  experience  an  unprecedented  growth.  By  1900 
this  institution  was  accepted  as  a matter  of  fact  and  was 
permissibly  legalized  by  imperial  edict  while  under  the  leader- 
ship of  such  men  as  Kerschensteiner  the  present  system  was 
given  form,® 

Kerschensteiner  took  the  position  that  the  primary 
schools  could  not  effectively  educate  for  citizenship  since  the 
child*'s  experiences  were  too  limited  at  the  time  of  his  in- 
struction there,  that  at  the  age  of  fourteen  systematic  education 
stopped  at  the  point  where  the  moral  control  of  the  boy  was  most 
difficult,  and  that  the  continuation  school  was  the  appropriate 

4 Ibid,  523. 

5 Ibid,  522  . 

6 Sadler,  M.E.,  Continuation  Schools  in  England  and  Elsewhere, 
520-5241  Monroe,  P.,  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  ("See '"Continuation 
Schools"). 


-38- 


institution  to  bridge  the  gap  between  the  time  when  the  boy 
left  the  primary  school  and  the  time  when  he  entered  military 

7 

service  * 

Since  that  time  and  largely  through  the  efforts  of 
Kerschensteiner  the  continuation  school  in  Germany  has  grown 
to  be  a highly  specialized  institution*®  A little  reflective 
thinking  about  the  significance  of  the  statistics  contained 
in  the  following  quotation  will  give  the  reader  some  idea  of 
the  enormous  importance  of  the  continuation  school  in  Germany 
some  ten  years  ago: 

"'A't  the  close  of  1911  Germany  possessed  about  3,300 
industrial  continuation  schools,  of  which  nearly  3,000  were 
under  obligatory  ordinance.  The  number  of  pupils  was 
approximately  550,000,  The  commercial  continuation  schools 
not  included  in  the  foregoing  totals  numbered  at  the  same 
time  7,700  of  which  only  80  were  not  under  obligatory  regulations. 
The  number  of  pupils  in  the  commercial  schools  was  in  round 
nijmber  .90;^ 000  boys  and  12,000  girls.  Agricultural  continuation 
schools  are  very  numerous  in  Prussia,  Bavaria,  and  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  For  all  Germany  the  number  was  1,700  obligatory  and 
3,500  optional.  They  comprise  together  about  84,000  pupils.  In 
addition  to  the  continuation  schools  having  a vocational  pur- 
pose, there  were  in  Germany  at  the  close  of  1911,  16,000 
continuation  schools  for  general  instruction,  attended  by 
350,000  boys  and  250,000  girls.  The  foregoing  statistics  do  not 
include  the  continuation  schools  of  an  industrial  character 
for  young  women;  since,  as  a rule,  these  have  not  been  brought 

7 Kerschensteiner,  Georg,  Education  for  Citizenship. 

8 Henderson,  E,..F,,A  Short  History  of  Germany,  535-541. 


-39- 

under  obligatory  orders,  it  is  difficult  to  secure  exact  sta- 
tistics relating  to  them.  The  reports  indicate,  however,  that 
great  interest  is  taken  in  the  domestic  training  of  young 
women  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden  and  in  Alsace-Lorraine.  As 
a general  rule  the  continuation  schools  are  supported  by  the 
communes,  with  the  aid  of  chambers  of  commerce,  commercial 
societies,  trades  unions,  etc.  The  annual  expenditure  of  the 
schools  of  this  order  is  estimated  at  22,000,000  marks 
($5,236,000);  of  this  total  the  communes  supply  10,500,000 
marks,  the  State  6,500,000,  and  the  employers  and  pupils  in 
the  way  of  fees  4,500,000.  The  balance  is  met  by  voluntary  sub- 
scriptions. The  communes  also  furnish  housing,  light,  heat, 
etc.,  for  the  schools.”® 

The  Great  War  which  changed  the  government  of  Germany 
from  a monarchy  to  a republic  abolished  class  distinction  so 
far  as  nobility  of  birth  was  concerned.  However,  since  the 
aristocracy  during  the  old  regime  had  never  attended  the  con- 
tinuation schools  and  since  this  did  not  materially  increase 
the  population  of  the  lower  classes,  the  burden  on  the  school 
was  not  appreciably  augmented.  In  fact  the  assumption  seems 
to  be  justified  that  due  to  the  decrease  of  the  birth  rate 
during  the  war  the  number  of  people  to  be  served  in  the  present 
decade  will  be  no  larger  than  the  number  served  in  the  past 
decade.  But  on  the  other  hand,  those  people  who  are  served 
must  be  so  well  served  that  industrial  Germany  may  be  cpickly 
reconstructed.  Hence,  this  will  mean  that  more  industrial  edu- 
cation must  be  introduced  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  people. 

9 Report  of  The  Commissioner  of  Education,  1913,  I,  818. 


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-40- 

Both  handicrafts  and  mechanical  arts  must  be  taught.  This  will 
mean,  probably,  that  the  work  of  the  continuation  schools  will 
become  more  highly  specialized  and  that  more  general  education 
will  be  introduced  as  Germany  becomes  restored  to  a normal  con- 
dition, As  the  law  stands  at  the  present  time  all  pupils  who 
leave  the  elementary  school  at  the  age  of  fourteen  still  have  to 
supplement  their  education  in  the  part-time  school. Hence,  the 
continuation  school  is  one  of  the  vital  parts  of  Germany’s  edu- 
cat ion. 

The  Continuation  School  of  England 

The  Sunday  School  movement  in  England  may  be  mentioned  as 
one  of  the  first  steps  towards  the  realization  of  the  continuation 
idea.  Sadler  divides  the  history  of  the  ’’overlapping  series  of  ef- 
forts for  further  education”  into  four  main  divisions. 

The  period  from  about  1780  to  1833  when  the  first  parlia- 
mentary vote  for  the  purpose  of  education  was  taken  extends 
through  a very  important  part  of  the  Industrial  Revolution  and 
the  fight  for  political  reform.  The  idea  was  given  expression 
through  charitable  instruction  in  religion,  and  this  phase  was 
soon  followed  by  night  instruction  provided  by  certain  benevo- 
lent textile  employers  as  well  as  by  ministers  of  the  Church 
of  England.  Self-supporting  schools  were  then  established,  and  in 
these  such  young  men  as  George  Stephenson,  the  pioneer  in  the 
modern  railway  movement,  learned  how  .to  read  about  topics  of 
their  own  special  interests. 

10  Sandiford,  Peter,  ” E<iucation  in  New  Germany”,  Survey,  Jan.  17. 
1920,  436. 

11  Sadler,  M.  E.,  Continuation  Schools  in  England  ard  Elsewhere.  5. 

12  Ibid.,  5-9. 


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-41- 

The  second  period  extends  from  about  1833  to  the  general 
European  revolutions  of  1848.  The  Industrial  Revolution  had 
started  the  grovrth  df  the"factory  system",  and  more  adults 
were  being  employed  in  the  factories.  Hence,  this  period  was 
characterized  by  a widespread  movement  for  the  continued  edu- 
cation of  adults.  The  initiative  was  private  and  the  crystalli- 
sation of  opinion  during  this  period  did  much  to  prepare  for 
the  next  era.^^ 

The  third  period,  from  1848  to  the  passage  of  the 

general  Elementary  Education  Act  in  1870,  saw  the  ideas  of  the 

former  period  put  into  practice  and  improved  by  such  men  as 

Frederick  Denison  Maurice  who  in  1854  founded  the  Working 

Men*s  College  in  London.  The  new  improvement  was  expressed  in 

the  founding  of  a number  of  universities  with  a civic  scope 

and  in  the  writings  of  Carlyle,  Ruskin,  and  Spencer.  Carlyle 

in  his  "Chartism"  asked  for  social  reform;  Ruskin  while  a 

teacher  in  the  Working  Men* s College  assisted  Maurice;  and 

Spencer  taught  the  philosophy  back  of  the  movement  and  by 

use  of  illustrations  did  not  suffer  such  embryotic  beginnings 

as  Pestalozzi  undertook  at  Neuhof  to  go  unnoticed.  During  this 

period  the  state  was  more  and  more  assuming  an  educational 

interest,  perhaps  largely  due  to  the  activity  Of  the  promoters 

14 

of  the  continuation  idea. 

The  fourth  period  in  this  development  began  about 
1870  and  has  continued  into  the  present  decade.  "One  result  of 

13  Ibid,,  9-10. 

14  Ibid.,  10-13. 


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-42- 


the  synthetic  view  of  national  education,  which  is  the  dis- 
tinctive mark  of  the  period,  has  been  a convergence  of  thought 

upon  the  problem  of  the  continuation  school"  as  the  term  is 

15 

used  in  this  thesis.  In  England  only  a few  years  ago  the 

most  widely  known  form  of  continuation  education  was  the 

Evening  Continuation  Schobl  which  functioned  both  in  urban 

centers  and  in  rural  communities,^®  This  institution,  however, 

seems  to  be  a survival  of  practices  from  the  time  when  the 

working  days  were  very  long  and  when  continued  instruction 

was  given  only  at  the  close  of  the  working  day. 

The  continuation  school  as  it  is  defined  in  this  thesis 

is  of  very  recent  date  in  England.  The  Education  Bill  of  1917 

for  England  and  Wales  inaugurated  a national  ceunpaign  for 

part-time  schools  which  were  to  be  similar  to  the  American 

17 

institution  with  which  the  writer  is  dealing.  This  is  shown 

by  Mr.  Fisher* s speech  which  was  made  at  the  time  when  he  in- 
troduced the  bill  into  Parliament.  He  said,  "The  school  attend- 
ance provision  amounts  to  this:  That  young  persons  who  are  not 
undergoing  full-time  instruction  will  be  liberated  from  in- 
dustrial toil  for  the  equivalent  of  three  one-half  days  a 
week  during  forty  weeks*  t’-vo  half-days  to  be  spent  in  school 
while  one  will  be  half  holiday.  Under  the  terms  of  the  bill 
the  local  authorities  are  compelled  to  consult  industrial  and 
other  interests  and  to  establish >a  variety  cf  types  of  schools, 

15  Ibid.,  13. 

16  Ibid.,  Chaps.  II  to  VI. 

17  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  Bulletin  No.  19,  1918, 
22  et  48-49. 


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-43- 


The  schools  are  to  continue  the  general  education  on  the 
foundations  of  the  public  elementary  schools,  and  to  give  it 
an  additional  vocational  bias  with  the  aim  to  produce  good 
citizens.  Are  8 hours  a week  for  4 weeks  sufficient?  Having 
regard  to  the  practical  objections  that  it  would  be  difficult 
to  provide  teachers  of  ability,  that  it  would  require  large 
expenditures  and  a disturbance  in  the  labor  market,  I came  to 
the  conclusion  that  8 hours  per  week  would  be  the  practical 
starting  point.  At  the  same  time  I should  not  like  it  to  go 
abroad  that  I gave  the  period  of  8 hours  a week  as  an  ideal. 

Young  people  should  be  regarded  as  subjects  of  education  and 
not  as  parts  of  the  industrial  machine.  The  bill  makes  pro- 
visions for  the  extension  of  hours  at  some  later  time.  Industrial 
efficiency  will  be  increased  and  the  employers  will  get  their 
return  in  the  development  of  the  character  of  the  people.  The 
only  objection  to  the  bill  came  from  one  member  who  believed 
that  the  proposals  for  raising  the  school  age  would  not  be 
approved  by  the  people  who  had  to  obey  the  law," 

This  bill  afterwards  was  withdrawn,  but  a modified  form 
of  it  subsequently  was  introduced.  It  provided  for  compulsory 
day  attendance  at  continuation  schools  from  the  age  of  fourteen 
to  the  age  of  eighteen, This  was  an  endeavor  to  establish  a 
continuation  school  that  would  provide  for  general  education, 
that  would  provide  for  vocational  and  civic  efficiency,  that 
would  not  consider  the  pupil  as  merely  a cog  in  the  great 
industrial  machine,  that  would  be  manned  by  teachers  who  were 

18  London  Times,  Education  Supplement,  August  16,  1917. 

19  Editorial,  Journal  of  Education,  London,  Sept.,  1917,  507. 

Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  Bulletin  Ho.  19,1918,22. 


sn  .. 


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..  ii'  . 


-44- 


well  prepared  to  do  their  tasks  in  a manner  suitable  to  the 

state. The  Continuation  School  Act  was  passed  in  1918  and 

21 

it  is  gradually  going  into  effect.  Tt  provides  that  all 

children  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen  who  do  not 

receive  an  equivalent  education  elsewhere  must  attend  the 

continuation  school  at  least  280  hours  per  year.  It  requires 

attendance  during  the  day  and  the  employers  to  arrange  the 

work  of  the  pupils  in  a manner  convenient  for  such  attendance. 

The  act  further  provides  for  cumulative  attendance  in  the  fact 

that  by  1935  the  maximum  age  limit  will  be  eighteen  and  the 

2^ 

number  of  hours  to  be  spent  in  school  will  be  320.  The  act 
was  not  intended  to  go  into  effect  simultaneously  in  every 
city  and  hamlet  of  the  kingdom.  Mr.  Fisher,  as  President  of  the 
Board  of  Education,  which  was  to  put  this  measure  into  operation 
:has  been  given  considerable  powers  in  initiating  the  en- 
forcement of  this  law.  He  requires  its  enforcement  in  those 
districts  where  existing  means  are  sufficient  in  quantity  to 
provide  for  the  school,  while  in  those  communities  that  have 
no  provision  already  made  he  will  not  enforce  the  law  until 
1925  at  which  time  they  will  be  compelled  to  vote  taxes  to 

conduct  the  schools.  In  the  meantime,  however,  he  advises  the 

33 

latter  towns  and  counties  to  establish  voluntary  schools.  ^ 

recent  report  on  the  success  of  the  continuation  school  of 

Eiqgland  shows  that  this  institution  is  fulfilling  an  urgent 
need  in  that  country  despite  the  local  problems  that  continually 

20  Federal  Boaird  for  Vocational  Education,  Bulletin  i!Jo .19,1918,23 

21  Editorial,  Journal  of  Education,  London,  Sept.,  1918,  525. 

22  Editorial  in  School  and  Society,  Jan.  17,  1920;  89. 

23  Editorial,  "Voluntary  Continuation  Schools,"  Ibid.,  166. 


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-45- 


24 

confront  it.  On  the  other  hand,  no  information  to  the  con- 
trary has  been  found  in  the  research  done  for  this  thesis. 

The  French  System 

In  France  a beginning  towards  the  carrying  out  of  the 
continuation  idea  dates  as  far  back  as  the  sixteenth  century, 
but  the  very  nature  of  the  French  government  prevented  its  pro- 
gress to  any  great  extent. Two  hundred  years  later  Rosseau 
voiced  its  philosophy  and  set  such  men  as  Turgot  to  thinking, 
but  the  removal  of  this  minister  and  the  political  upheavals  of 
the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  prs'vented  the  realization 
of  Turgot's  ideas  and  Rosseau' s ideals.  It  seems  that  just  when 
conditions  were  settled  enough  for  a plan  to  be  formulated  a 
change  in  government  dissipated  all  hopes  for  its  success.^’® 

Nevertheless,  in  1875  H.  Greard  made  public  a plan  for  adult 
classes.  By  1884  the  plan  was  made  universal  by  legal  statute.  In 
1905  nearly  500,000  pupils  were  attending  the  Fr^^nch  form  of  the 
continuation  school  which  is  somewhat  different  from  the  American 
institution  that  is  under  consideration.  Attendance  was  only 
voluntary,  but  a movement  for  making  it  compulsory  'was  begun. 

The  Cours  d'Adultes  or  French  Continuation  School  meets 
usually  in  the  evening,  but  compulsory  attendance  still  is  not 
required  because  it  has  never  been  made  statutory.  Mixed  classes 
are  found  only  in  large  towns.  State,  department,  and  town 
subsidies  are  given  for  the  support  of  these  schools  or  classes. 

24  Stewart,  JT  J.,  "The  New  Continuation  School",  Journal  of 
Education  and  The  c^chool  World,  February,  1921. 

25  Sadler,  M.  E.,  Continuation  Schools  in  England  and  Elsewhere, 576. 
36  Ibid.,  577. 

27  Ibid.,  579  et  ff. 


I 

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-46- 


Anyone  approved  by  the  mayor,  prefect,  and  academy  inspector  may 
conduct  classes  in  or  open  a Cours  d*Adultes. 

In  1918  M.  Viviani  introduced  a bill  into  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  to  require  attendance  during  working  hours  of  ajLl 
children  below  the  age  of  seventeen  who  were  employed.  This 
bill  had  the ^ roval  and  support  of  the  minister  of  commerce 
and  the  most  influenced  business  interests  of  France,  but  the 
time  was  not  ripe  probably  because  of  the  military  pal  ides 

29 

which  the  French  adopted  on  account  of  the  fear  of  the  Germane* 

Continuation  Schools  in  Some  Other  European  States 

Switzerland  has  a decentralized  system  of  continuation 
education.  The  schools  providing  this  education  are  of  fairly 
recent  date,  although  preliminary  experiments  date  back  many 
years.  These  schools  are  under  the  very  democratic  political 
organization  of  the  local  units.  Pressland  says,*^the  adminis- 
trative talents  of  the  nation  are  directed  towards  education 
in  the  absence  of  large  external  interests....  Great  progess. 
is  being  made  with  the  continuation  school,  and... the  Swiss  spare 
neither  money  nor  effort  in  perfecting  them.  In  Switzerland  the 
deserving  apprentice  does  not  find  his  instruction  left  to  the 
chance  events  which  modify  a daily  routine,  for  continuation 
schools  are  always  within  reach.  And  for  their  maintenance  and 
success,  he  must  thank  the  cooperation  of  the  State,  the 

28  ibid.,  517  et  ff. 

29  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education, '^Part-Time  Trade  and 
Industrial  Education, "Bulletin  ho,  19,  1918,  23. 

30  ^ Sadler,  M.E.,  Continuation  Schools  in  England  and  Elsewhere, 
648,  et  ff. 


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-47- 


‘X't 

employer,  the  trade  union  and  the  teacher."  Since  the  Swiss 

systems  of  education  differ  so  materially,  this  state  has  been 

32 

called  aptly  "the  educational  laborotory  of  Europe." 

it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  continuation  school  is  accepted 

33 

very  widely  by  this  great  democratic  people. 

Vajlous  types  of  part-time  schools  are  found  also  in 

Italy,  Holland,  Austria,  and  Scandinavia^^ As  a rule  they  resemble 
the  German  system  in  such  particulajs  as  organization,  content,  v 
methods  and  aims,  but  since  they  have  had  little  or  no  effect  on 
the  American  institution  perhaps  the  greatest  value  that  they 
have  for  the  United  States  is  that  they  reflect  the  cosmopolitan 
view  of  how  other  nations  feel  concerning  the  cont inuati  oon  school! 

The  American  Movement 

The  philanthropic  spirit  which  expressed  itself  so 

strongly  across  the  Atlantic  put  the  continuation  idea  before  the 

people  of  America  at  a very  early  date  in  colonial  history.  Its 

expression,  as  in  England  and  elsewhere,  was  voiced  in  the 

Sunday  School  movement  although  the  same  idea  had  been  expressed 

partially  by  such  other  movements  as  that  for  apprenticeship 

education  in  Virginia.^®  The  former,  however,  was  more  aggressive. 

It  undertook  the  publication  and  furnishing  of  various  books  at 

a very  low  rate  because  it  thought  them  necessary  for  effective 

36 

Sunday  School  Instruction. 


31 

32 

33 

34 


35 


36 


ibid. , 575. 
ibid. , 574. 
ibid. , 574 . 

Cooley  E.G. , Vocational  Education  in  Europe,  276-313>  Sadler, 
M.E.,  Continuation  Schools  in  England  and  Elsewhere, 483-513. 
Leonard  R.S.,  "One  Promotional  Aspect  of  The  Smith-Hughes  Act" 


in  Educational  Administration  and  Supervision,  Dec.  1920,492. 
Graves,  Frank  P.,  A Student *s  History  of  Education 


-48- 


The  development  of  the  public  school  system  to  a large  extent 
made  unnecessary  the  Sunday  School  as  well  as  several  other 
philanthropic  societies  which  were  trying  to  bring  into  practice 
their  conceptions  of  the  continuation  idea* 

A distinct  step  in  the  direction  of  the  continuation 
school  was  the  Pestalozzi-Feiienburg  system.  It  was  introduced 
into  the  United  States  during  the  third  decade  of  the  nineteenth 
century  in  order  to  enable  students  to  earn  their  way  through 
college.  It  enjoyed  a prosperous  growth  in  How  England  and  the 
Middle  States. Under  this  system  the  increments  from  a student *8 
manual  labor  were  applied  on  his  expenses  while  he  was  in  college* 
A plan  somewhat  similar  to  this  was  adopted  in  our  own  century  in 
1906  by  the  College  of  Engineering  in  the  University  of  Cincinnati, 
This  indicates  a movement  in  the  working  out  of  the  continuation 
idea  even  beyond  the  usual  continuation  school?®  ^ 

The  American  continuation  school  may  be  said  to  have  been 
born  when  in  1901  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  City  of  Chicago 
established  a continuation  class  for  the  education  of  apprentices 
of  the  Mason’s  and  Bricklayer’s  Associations*  In  1902  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Bricklayer's  Union  and  the  Masons’  and  Bricklayers’ 

Association  the  School  was  continued  and  its  attendance  was 

39 

increased  materially* 

Other  cities,  such  as  Boston  and  Hew  York,  experienced 
similar  situations  and  established  local  continuation  schools* 

37  Graves,  Frank  P*,  A history  of  Education  in  Modern  Times, 160-16< 

38  Jones,  A.J.,  "The  Continuation  School  in  The  United  States"  in 
Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  Ho*  1,  1907,  135-26i . 

39  Ibid.,  134-125. 


-49- 

They  were  only  experiments  but  they  paved  the  way  for  the  first 
comprehensive  state  system  in  America.  Hence,  the  history  of 
each  experiment  is  of  little  importance  for  the  purpose  of 
this  study. 

In  1909  Senator  Fairchild  introduced  into  the  state 
legislature  of  Wisconsin  a joint  resolution  which  created  a 
commission  to  investigate  the  basis  of  education  in  that  state. 
The  commission  was  provided  for  and  was  ready  to  report  to 
the  legislature  in  1911,  The  result  of  its  findings  influenced 
that  body  to  pass  a law  which  established  a system  of  con- 
tinuation schools,  A State  Board  of  Industrial  Education  for 
the  control  of  sts.te  aid  was  provided  for  and  placed  under  the 
direction  of  the  state  superintendent.  Local  boards  of  education 
in  districts  with  a population  of  5,000  or  more  were  required 
to  appoint  a board  of  education  whose  duty  was  to  provide  for 
and  maintain  a system  of  continuation  schools.  This  board  was 

to  be  composed  of  two  employers,  two  employees,  and  the 

40 

superintendent  of  schools.  All  children  between  the  ages  of 
fourteen  and  sixteen  who  were  employed  were  required  to  attend 
school  for  at  least  four  hours  per  week  In  1913  "Pennsylvania 
enacted  a law  that  required  the  attendance  of  all  children 
between  14  and  18"  for  eight  hours  per  week  if  they  were  em- 
ployed. Employment  in  this  case  was  not  construed  to  mean  work 
on  the  farm  or  domestic  service  in  the  house. Other  states 

40  Miles,  H.E.,  "Wisconsin  Legislation  Governing  Industrial 
and  Continuation  Education,"  in  Bulletin  of  Wisconsin 
State  Board  of  Indust iral  Education#  8. 

41  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No. 55,  1920,  19. 

42  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  5,  1921,  21, 


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-50~ 

quickly  fell  in  line  as  soon  as  the  Great  War  was  over;  at  the 
present  time  nearly  half  of  the  states  of  the  Union  have  con- 
tinuation school  systems  and  compulsory  attendance  laws,^^ 

In  fact  the  Great  War  was  instrumental  in  bringing  about  con- 
tinuation legislation  because  it  taught  the  states  that  pro- 
blems really  existed.  As  a result  the  Smith-Hughes  Act  was 

44 

passed  which  offered  aid  to  the  continuation  school.  During 
1919  and  1920  seventeen  states  adopted  state-wide  continuation 

school  policies.  The  pace  set  in  those  years,  however,  was 

not  kept  up  probably  for  several  reasons:  In  the  first  place 

the  continuation  school  systems  that  had  been  established  had 

not  been  able  to  do  in  one  or  two  years  what  the  traditional 

schools  had  failed  to  do  in  a century;  in  the  second  place 

as  the  states  in  time  receded  from  the  startling  revelations 

of  the  war  they  tended  to  forget  the  defects  of  their  citizens; 

and  in  the  third  place  the  objections  discussed  above"^^  v/ere 

vital  factors  in  retarding  action.  It  may  have  been,  too,  that 

some  of  the  states  were  afraid  of  getting  into  the  difficulty 

that  Illinois  experienced  in  its  endeavor  to  establish  a 

state-wide  system  of  continuation  education.  A discussion  of 

this  experience  is  included  to  show  the  difficulties  that 

beset  legislation  and  to  show  by  example  how  the  continuation 

school  began  in  practically  every  state  that  has  adopted  a 

system  of  continuation  education.'^^ 

43  Appendix  I . 

44  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Bulletin  No.  19, 
1918,  42-43. 

45  Supra,  24  bt  ff. 

46  Impression  gained  by  the  author  in  his  study  of  the  origin 
of  this  institution. 


-51- 


The  Experlenoe  of  Illinola 

The  continuation  activities  in  Chicago  in  1901  and  1302 
have  been  referred  to  already, In  the  same  city  during  the 
next  year  a part-time  class  in  carpentry  was  organized.  The 
results  of  the  Chicago  experiment  and  of  the  Wisconsin  plan 
were  so  successful  that  in  1912  Moline  established  a trade- 
extension  class.  Just  at  that  time  the  popularity  of  the 
German  continuation  school  was  rather  wide-spread  and  en- 
deavors were  made  to  attain  similar  results.  These  experiments 
proved  very  successful  and  by  1918  Alton,  Galesburg,  Peoria, 
Rockford,  and  Springfield  had  established  part-time  schools 


or  classes. 


There  were  2,516  pupils  enrolled  and  the  time  of 

48 

46  teachers  was  required  for  their  instruction.  The  agency 
which  materially  furthered  the  growth  Of  the  continuation 
school  in  Illinois  and  in  many  other  states  was  the  federal 
subsidy  provided  for  by  the  Smith-Hughes  Act.^^  Considerable 
pressure  was  brought  to  bear  on  the  legislature  of  191 '5  when 
the  Cob ley  bill  was  before  that  body.  Due  to  the  fact  that 
it  provided  for  dual  control  and  that  it  was  thought  to  be 
too  German  in  character  it  was  defeated  after  a bitter  fight, 
although  speakers  from  Wisconsin  and  elsewhere  were  imported 
to  defend  the  movement  and  outside  forces  were  brought  to  bear 
upon  the  bill  for  its  defeat,  one.  of  which  was  the  stand  taken 
by  Superintendent  Cary.  He  showed  that  the  Wisconsin  system 

47  Supra,  48. 

48  Proceedings  of  The  High  School  Conference,  Illinois,  1918, 
95-96. 

49  Infra,  88-90. 


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-52' 


was  not  like  the  one  proposed  in  the  Cooley  hill  and  that  the 

same  forces  were  at  work  in  his  state  to  replace  the  associate 

50 

control  by  dual  control.  The  bill  was  defeated  but  the  move- 
ment for  a system  of  continuation  schools  did  not  stop  there. 

A like  result,  1917,  was  accomplished  by  the  legislature’s  tabling 
the  bill.^^  The  next  legislature,  in  1919,  passed  the  con- 
tinuation school  bill  by  a vote  almost  unanimous:  84  to  1 
in  the  House  and  35  to  0 in  the  Senate. The  series  of  laws 
which  included  and  gave  color  to  this  law  have  been  analyzed 
in  the  following  way:- 

The  first  law  accepted  the  provisions  of  the  Federal 
Vocational  Education  Act  and  created  machinery  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  it.  The  second  important  measure  was  embodied  as 
a part  of  the  omnibus  bill  and  appropriated  from  the  state 
treasury  ^400,439.97  in  order  to  match  an  equal  amount  pro- 
vided for  by  the  Smith-Hughes  Act,  The  third  enactment  amended 
the  compulsory  attendance  law  and  provided  that  in  districts 
where  continuation  schools  were  established  already,  all 
children  in  empl03mient  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen 
should  attend  these  continuation  schools  for  at  least  eight 
hours  per  week.  The  final  law  which  was  important  in  this 
connection  provided  that  all  districts  that  had  twenty  or 
more  minors  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen  who  were 
not  in  attendance  in  the  full-time  schools  must  establish 
part-time  schools.  Attendance  was  made  compulsory  for  at  least 

50  Educational  Press  Bulletin,  June  1916,  2. 

51  Journal  of  The  House  of  Representatives,  Illinois, 1917, 971, 

52  Ibid.,  1919,  770;  Senate  Journal,  Illinois,  See  Index. 


-53- 


eight  hours  per  week  and  for  at  least  thirty-six  weeks  annually. 
The  sessions  had  to  be  held  between  the  hours  of  eight  in  the 
morning  and  five  in  the  afternoon,  excepting  Saturday  after- 
noons and  Sundays,  The  age  limits  were  to  be  changed  in  1922 
to  include  children  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  seventeen, 
and  in  1923  to  include  the  children  between  the  ages  of 
fourteen  and  eighteen,  if  the  children  were  not  attending  the 
regular  schools. 

These  laws  seemed  very  good  but  the  pressing  question 
of  the  hour  was  how  was  the  local  district,  which  was  taxed  to 
its  limit  and  which  hardly  could  maintain  its  schools  as  they 
were,  going  to  meet  the  situation.  The  legislature  appropriated 
no  funds  for  these  local  districts  to  provide  additional 
facilities  to  meet  '.the  situation  and  as  a result  the  men 
who  most  desired  such  a law  had  either  to  remain  neutral, to 
oppose  it  or  to  persuade  the  legislators  to  give  them  powers 
to  obtain  the  necessary  funds.  The  legislators  however  failed 
to  provide  means  for  the  carrying  out  of  this  mammoth  project. 
Hence,  the  law  was  amended  and  this  action  practically  killed 
its  effectiveness  so  far  as  its  original  purpose  was  concerned. 
State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Blair,  said  of 
this  situation,  "The  group  of  earnest  zealous  persons  who 
formulated  and  fe,vored  such  a plan  was  forced  to  postpone  the 
compulsory  establishment  of  these  continuation  schools  for  at 
least  nine  months  after  its  passage.  During  the  last  two  years 
the  matter  has  been  discussed  up  and  down  State.  Boards  of 
53  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  XVII,  19-24. 


F I * I ‘ . * ^ \'  ” ‘ ‘ * )^'  ' ' jyj  ' ' ■ * ' 'f "'' 

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-54- 


education,  city  superintendents,  and  high  school  principals 
saw  that  it  was  going  to  add  considerably  to  the  expenses  of 
operating  their  schools.  In  many  oases  the  districts  were 
running  behind  their  current  revenues.  Unless  the  Legislature 
would  give  a greatly  Increased  distributive  fund  and  a greatly 
increased  tax  rate,  these  boards  and  school  officers  were  un- 
willing to  take  on  an  additional  form  of  school  work  whose 
cost  they  could  not  accurately  forecast. 

It  is  probably  true  that  they  greatly  exaggerated 
the  addition  to  their  budget  which  would  be  entailed  by 
establishing  and  maintaining  these  schools,  but  the  fact  that 
they  could  see  no  way  of  getting  any  increase  forced  them  to 
seek  further  postponement  of  the  compulsory  continuation  law. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  session  it  was  hoped  by  all  that 
were  interested  in  the  welfare  of  boys  and  girls  between  the 
ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen  who  Sre  now  in  employment,  that 
the  amendment  adopted  would  postpone  the  compulsory  feature 
Only  two  years.  It  was  believed  that  by  that  time  the  increased 
distributive  fund  and  the  increased  tax  rate  would  have  con- 
vinced the  boards  that  they  could  undertake  the  work.  It 
appeared,  however,  that  the  districts  were  so  much  alarmed 
over  the  possible  increase  in  their  expenses  should  they  be 
forced  to  establish  continuation  schools  that  their  efforts 
soon  took  the  form  of  striking  out  of  the  present  law  every 
word  of  its  compulsory  provisions.  As  the  law  now  stands,  any 
district  which  desires  to,  may  establish  part-time  continuation 
schools.  In  such  districts  the  children  in  employment  between 

the  ages  of  fourteen  and  eighteen  will  be  compelled  to  attend. 
54  Educational  Press  Bulletin,  July  1921,  4. 


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-55- 

Nevertheless,  the  work  in  continuation  education  in 
Illinois  has  been  increasing  from  year  to  year.  During  the 
year  1919-1920  there  were  four  part-time  trade  extension 
schools  which  enrolled  705  pupils  and  which  employed  thirteen 
teachers  and  ten  part-time  general  continuation  schools  which 
enrolled  7,886  pupils  and  employed  71  teachers. During  the 
year  1920-1921  there  were  two  part-time  trade  extension 
schools  in  operation;  they  employed  16  teachers  and  enrolled 
1,071  pupils.  At  the  same  time  14,094  pupils  were  in  attendance 
at  17  part-time  general  continuation  schools  in  which  196 
teachers  were  employed,^® 

Teacher  training  cdarses  were  conducted  in  three 
institutions  of  higher  learning  in  the  state.  The  Depatment 
of  Industrial  Education  of  the  University  of  Illinois  con- 
ducted extra~mural  classes  in  a number  of  cities.  While  its 
work  was  along  the  line  of  industrial  education  in  general, 
the  continuation  school  received  the  major  emphasis  since  the 
classes  were  composed  largely  of  actual  or  would-be  continu- 
ation teachers. 

Summary 

The  continuation  school  is  a result  of  efforts  to 
realize  the  continuation  idea  which  began  some  centuries  ago. 
Its  early  endeavors  were  embodied  in  such  philanthropic  under- 
takings as  the  Sunday  School  movement.  This  institution  reached 
a high  degree  of  efficiency  in  Germany  sooner  than  in  any  other 

55  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Illinois,  Annual  Report, 
1920,  14-15. 

56  Ibid.,  1921,  18. 


-56- 


country  largely  through  the  efforts  of  Kerschensteiner . The 
English  and  French  forms  of  continuation  education  differed 
radically  from  that  of  Germany  which  was  largely  responsible 
for  the  American  agitation  that  led  to  its  adoption  on  a 
state  wide  basis  in  America.  Other  European  states,  however, 
copied  the  German  form  very  closely  but  such  states  as 
Switzerland  have  gradually  improved  upon  it  in  such  ways  as 
make  it  more  adaptibld  to  each  local  community. 

The  American  continuation  school  as  an  institution  be- 
gan its  work  in  the  large  cities  about  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century.  Some  smaller  cities  followed  suit  and  in  1911 
Wisconsin  adopted  the  first  comprehensive  state-wide  con- 
tinuation school  system.  Pennsylvania  followed  the  example 
set  by  Wisconsin  and  their  success  plus  the  pressure  brought 
about  by  bellum  conditions  led  to  the  climax  movement  in  1919 
and  1920.  Since  that  time  the  city  movement  has  kept  on.  At 
the  present  time  it  seems  that  a great  future  awaits  the  city 
movement  which  will  eventually,  perhaps,  lead  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a system  of  continuation  instruction  in  every  state 
in  the  Union.  During  this  period  of  Reconstruction  quick 
results  along  this  line  are  not  to  be  expected,  but  when 
normalcy  shall  be  restored  it  is  likely  that  a brighter  future 
will  lie  in  store  for  the  continuation  movement. 


Selected  Bibliography. 

Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Illinois,  Annual  Report, 1920 
Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Illinois,  Annual  Report,  1921 
Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No,  55,  1920,  "Compulsory  Part- 
Time  School  Attendance  Laws", 

Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No,  5,  1921,  "Part-Time  Education 
of  Various  Types" 

Cooley,  E.G,,  Vocational  Education  in  Europe 
Educational  Press  Bulletin,  June  1917 
Educational  Press  Bulletin,  July  1921 

Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  Bulletin  No,  19,  1918, 
"Part-Time  Trade  and  Industrial  Education" 

Fisher,  H,A.L.,  "The  Minister  of  Education  on  Continuation 

Schools"  The  Journal  of  Education,  London, February,  1917 
Graves,  Frank  P,,  A History  of  Education  in  Modern  Times 
Graves,  Frank  P,,  A Student’s  History  of  Education 
Henderson,  E.  F.,  A Short  History  of  Germany 
Jones,  A,J.,  "The  Continuation  School  in  The  United  States" 
Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Education,  No,  1,  1907 
Journal  of  Education,  London,  Sept.,  1917 
Journal  of  Education,  London,  Sept.,  1918 
Journal  of  The  House  of  Representatives,  Illinois,  1917 

Journal  of  The  House  of  Representatives,  Illinois,  1919 

Journal  of  The  House  of  Representatives,  Illinois,  1921 

Kerschensteiner,  Georg,  Education  for  Citizenship 
Leonard,  R.  S.,  "One  Promotional  Aspect  of  The  Smith-Hughes  Act" 
Educational  Administration  and  Supervision,  Dec.,  1920, 
491-508 


■ / 


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• 1 '.(  ■ ■■■'Vi ''■''!  ■/’•’■  . i«  I . 'X-  IM 

I ■'■■  T\.i,  " ; "■  : . \ar.' . '41k,  “M 


1. 


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-58- 


London  Times,  Educational  Supplement,  August  16,  1917 
Miles,  H.  E.,  "Wisconsin  Legislation  Governing  Industrial  and 
Continuation  Education"  A Bulletin  of  The  Wisconsin 
State  Board  of  Industrial  Education, 

Monroe,  Paul,  Cyclopedia  of  Education, 

Proceedings  of  High  School  Conference,  Illinois,  1918 
Report  of  The  Commissioner  of  Education,  I,  1913 
Sadler,  M.E,,  Continuation  Schools  in  England  and  Elsewhere 
Sandiford,  Peter,  "Education  in  New  Germany?  Survey,  January 
17,  1920. 

School  and  Society,  January  17,  1920 
Senate  Journal,  Illinois,  1919 
Senate  Journal,  Illinois,  1921 

Stewart,  J.J.,  "The  New  Continuation  School,"  Journal  of 
Education  and  The  School  World,  February,  1921 
University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  XVII  No.  2,  1919, 
"Industrial  Education" 


Chapter  III 

Some  Factors  in  Organization  and  Administration 

Types  of  Continuation  Schools 

At  the  present  time  in  the  United  States  at  least  three 
forms  of  continuation  education  are  generally  accepted}  Each 
has  a specific  purpose  to  perform  and  is  organized  and  administer- 
ed as  the  local  superintendent  thinks  best,  being  subject  to  what- 
ever state  regulations  may  exist.  Since  state  control  is  very 
lax,  there  exists  a great  lack  of  uniformity  in  any  type  of  the 
continuation  school. 

The  first  type  to  be  mentioned  is  the  general  continu- 
ation school.  Due  to  the  ease  of  establishing  this  kind  of  con- 
tinuation work  as  well  as  to  the  ease  of  maintaining  it,  this 
type  of  continuation  school  is  most  prevalent.  Its  specific 
function  is  to  continue  the  education  of  the  pupil  along  general 
lines.  The  instruction  is  intended  to  begin  at  the  place  where 
the  instruction  in  the  all-day  schools  ends  and  to  furnish  the 
pupils  with  solid  foundations  upon  which  can  be  built  vocational 
superstructures  and  lives  of  social  usefulness.  This  school  is 
designed  to  continue  the  education  of  the  pupils  in  such  funda- 
mental subjects  as  reading,  arithmetic,  writing,  and  citizenship 
to  whatever  extent  is  necessary  in  order  that  they  may  pursue 
their  vocations  and  occupy  positions  which  are  acceptable  and 

1 Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Bulletin  No.  19,  1918, 
33-24. 


-60- 

profitable  to  society.  ^ 

The  second  type  of  continuation  school  is  the  trade 
preparatory  school.  The  function  of  this  school  is  more  highly 
specialized  than  that  of  the  general  continuation  school  because 
it  is  designed  to  prepare  its  pupils  for  Various  trades  or  voca- 
tions, It  is  the  kind  of  institution  that  assists  pupils  to  rise 
from  the  "blind-alley  job"  to  better  positions  by  teaching  them 
how  to  do  some  work  whose  future  is  more  inviting  and  more  in  ac- 
cord with  their  natural  abilities.  In  this  type  of  school  an 
elevator  boy  may  learn  the  machinis'fr’s  trade  or  a paper  carrier 
may  learn  stenography  or  bookkeeping.  Here  most  of  the  trades 
may  be  taught  and  the  chief  limitations  on  the  individual* s 
learning  any  trade  are  that  it  may  not  be  offered  because  of  a 
lack  of  a demand  for  it  or  that  the  individual  may  be  incapable 
of  mx storing  it . 

The  third  type  of  continuation  school  is  the  trade 
extension  school.  This  school  has  the  function  of  teaching  the 
pupils  how  to  do  more  efficiently  zhe  work  at  which  they  are  em- 
ployed; it  is  designed  to  prepare  them  to  advance  to  higher 
positions  in  the  vocations  upon  which  they  have  entered.  This 
type  of  institution  has  been  deemed  so  valuable  to  their  interests 
that  many  large  industrial  conoerns  such  as  the  iiational  Cash 
Register  Company  and  the  Western  Electric  Company  conduct  trade 
extension  schools.  Some  schools  of  this  type  are  privately  owned 
and  controlled  while  others  are  managed  under  the  direct  control 
of  the  public  school  officials.  Four  of  the  seven  continuation 
schools  of  the  city  of  Chicago  are  located  in  the  plants  of  the 


-61- 

great  packing  industries.  This  means  that  these  particular 
schools  are  teaching  the  children  employed  in  their  plants  how 
to  do  the  various  jobs  of  the  packing  industry.  An  objection  that 
is  raised  to  the  practice  of  carrying  on  continuation  schools  of 
this  type  in  the  buildings  of  the  great  corporations  is  that  the 
respective  industrial  concerns  dominate  the  schools  and  that  as 
a result  the  education  given  is  of  such  a kind  that  it  can  be  a- 
dapted  only  to  their  own  systems.  Hence,  the  pupils  can  not  orient 
themselves  into  new  situations  in  case  they  lose  their  jobs;  thus 
the  purpose  of  the  continuation  school  of  this  type  is  baffled. 

On  the  other  hand,  other  people  argue  that  public  supervision  and 
control  certainly  are  able  to  take  care  of  :lie  situation  and  mini- 
mize, if  not  eradicate,  such  dangers.  Doubtless  without  public 
oversight  the  argument  of  the  former  group  is  valid,  but  with 
public  supervision  and  administration  the  argument  of  the  latter 
group  seems  to  be  well  founded. 

The  Continuation  Class 

One  advance  in  continuation  work  is  that  of  considering 
the  class,  and  not  the  school  in  every  case,  as  a unit  for  this 
kind  of  instruction.  In  fact,  the  term,  continuation  class, 
should  be  used  more  often.  Certain  communities  have  possibilities 
for  the  class,  but  when  they  think  of  a school  as  being  made  up  of 
a large  n^jimber  of  clashes,  the  continuation  school  seems  an  im- 
possibility. If  a small  district  has  a small  number  of  children 
in  industry,  a number  large  enough  to  justify  a separate  class  in 
the  regular  school,  certainly  the  public  school  should  maintain 

2 Cooley,  E.  G.,  "Some  Chicago  Continuation  Schools,”  School  Life, 
January  15,1920,  15. 


-62- 

a continuation  school  for  them.  The  term,  class,  might  not  seem 
impossible  to  the  sraail-town  board  of  education  when  perhaps  the 
term,  school,  might  frighten  them  so  much  that  they  would  give 
little  attention  to  the  project.  Only  a few  or  just  one  subject 
might  be  offered,-  a subject  that  would  pretty  fully  meet  the 
needs  of  the  group  of  pupils.  Some  districts  are  maintaining 
classes  in  only  one  or  in  just  a few  subjects.^  As  a result  of 
this  practice  the  terms,  continuation  school  and  continuation 
class,  are  used  often  interchangeably. 

\ 

Its  Relation  to  The  Elementary  School 

In  most  cases  the  elementary  school  prepares  the  pupil 
for  his  further  education  whether  it  be  in  the  traditional  secon- 
dary or  in  the  continuation  school.  For  his  entrance  into  the 
traditional  secondary  school  certain  standards  are  held  to  very 
religiously  in  may  cases,  but  for  his  entrance  into  the  continu- 
ation school  no  scholastic  minimum  requirements  have  been  estab- 
lished definitely,  gome  pupils  are  found  in  the  continuation 
school  who  have  had  very  little  formal  schooling  while  others 
have  attended  school  as  much  as  eleven  years.  The  determination 
of  entrance  requirements  along  scholastic  lines  is  a very  diffi- 
cult problem  because  one  of  the  fundamental  purposes  of  the  in- 
stitution is  very  likely  to  be  defeated.  A safer  policy  to  pur- 
sue is  to  adapt  the  instruction  to  the  pupil  in  the  continuation 
school  even  though  he  may  never  have  learned  to  read,  write,  or 
even^  cipher,  provided  that  the  child  is  normal  or  approximately  so. 

3 Board  for  Vocational  Hducat^on,  Illinois,  Bulletin  No.  30,  1921, 


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-63- 


The  elementary  school  has  the  task  of  providing  the 
pupil  with  certain  fundamentals  which  are  largely  tools  for  future 
progress.  Sometimes  it  fails  to  accomplish  its  purpose  and  the 
pupils  leave  it;  othertimes  they  leave  when  the  school  is  not  in 
any  way  responsible  for  their  going.  They  enter  the  great  world 
of  industry  and  are  required  o adjust  themselves  to  varied  social 
situations,  but  in  doing  thi^.  many  problems  confront  them  and  they 
feel  certain  n.'eds.  In  such  cases  the  continuation  school  under- 
takes to  accomplish  what  the  elementary  school  has  failed  to  do, 
even  though  it  may  attack  the  problem  in  a different  manner. 

Inasmuch  as  the  cont inusat ion  school  pupil  is  usually  at 
least  fourteen  years  of  age,  he  has  attended  school  from  six  to 
eleven  years.  This  means  then  that  most  of  the  continuation 
school  pupils  will  have  completed  the  sixth  grade  before  they 
enter  this  institution.  In  the  state  of  Illinois  the  child  can- 
not obtain  a working  permit  v/hich  is  a legal  prerequisite  for  em- 
ployment until  he  has  "completed  the  fifth  grade  to  add  including 
fractions.""^  In  districts  that  follow  the  plan  of  the  State 
Course  of  Study  this  means  practically  the  completion  of  the  sixth 
grade  because  fractions  are  not  completed  until  in  the  eighth 

5 

month  of  the  sixth  year. 

The  advocates  of  the  continuation  shhool  do  not  claim 
that  this  institution  is  a substitute  for  the  elementary  school. 
They  are  very  gjjid  to  call  it  a supplementary  institution  whose 
business  is  to  perform  the  duty  which  the  elementary  sdhool  has 

4 Hurd,  H.  B.,  Revised  Statutes,  Illinois,  1919,  48,20d. 

5 Course  of  Study  for  The  Common  Schools  of  Illinois,  Sixth 
General  Revision,  163. 


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-64- 

fa  iled  to  accomplish;  conversely,  the  elementary  school's  part 
in  the  program  is  to  feed  the  continuation  school  as  it  does  the 
regular  high  school.® 

Its  Relation  to  Hhe  High  School 

Under  the  present  organization  the  continuation  school 
sometimes  is  not  as  closely  related  to  the  high  school  as  it  should 
be,  although  both  schools  may  be  under  the  same  administration, 
in  the  same  building,  composed  of  pupils  of  the  same  physiological 
maturity,  and  taught  by  the  same  teachers.  In  the  large  cities 
the  superintendent  of  schools  usually  has  the  power  of  administer- 
ing both  the  regular  schools  and  the  continuation  schools.  In 
most  cases  he  delegates  the  administration  of  continuation  work 
to  subordinates  who  are  endowed  with  considerable  authority  and 
who  are  made  responsible  for  the  success  of  the  institutions  which 
they  administer.  Sometimes  obstacles  are  present  in  the  situation 
v/here  both  regular  secondary  and  continuation  work  are  carried  on 
in  the  same  building  if  the  continuation  work  is  not  subject  to 
the  delegated  executive  officer  of  the  high'school.  Discipline 
may  be  maintained  only  with  difficulty;  lack  of  cooperation  may 
be  evidenced:  failure  to  respect  the  rirhts  of  the  other  party 
may  result;  and  the  ill-feeling  created  may  lead  to  inefficiency. 

The  plan  used  by  the  J.  Sterling  Morton  Township  High 
School  at  Cicero,  Illinois,  is  one  that  to  a large  extent  elimi- 
nates the  possi’^'ilit ies  of  a serious  complication.  The  principal 
of  the  high  school  selects  the  principal  of  the  continuation  school 
and  the  latter  holds  the  office  of  assistant  principal  of  the  high 
school.  Such  a plan  is  adaptable  to  districts  that  have  only  one 

6 Bawden,  W.  T.,  "The  Relation  of  The  Elementary  School  to  Subse- 
quent Industrial  Education,"  N.  E:  A.  Proceedings,  1913,  912. 


-65- 

continuation  school.  However,  if  this  plan  were  applied  to  the 
several  continuation  schools  of  a populous  city,  a supervisor  of 
these  schools  would  be  necessary  to  preserve  unity  of  action. 

Theoretically,  in  order  to  fulfill  the  purposes  of  edu- 
cation the  continuation  school  and  the  high  school  should  accom- 
plish similar  results.  The  contents  of  the  curricula  should  be 
composed  of  considerably  the  same  material.  Certainly  the  high 
school  has  a great  deal  more  time  than  the  continuation  school 
to  accomplish  its  purpose;  hence  the  former  may  teach  a great 
deal  more  than  the  latter.  As  a matter  of  fact  the  curricula  of 
these  sc'-^ools  differ  very  widely  and  high  school  credit  is  sel- 
dom ffiven  for  the  successful  completion  of  the  subjects  of  the 
continuation  school.  For  this  practice  several  reasons  may  be 
assigned;  Attendance  may  be  too  infrequent;  the  nature  of  the 
subject-matter  may  not  be  acceptable;  the  pupil  may  not  have 
reached  the  nineth  grade  before  entering  the  continuation  school; 
pr  the  pupil  may  never  request  such  credit.  If  pupils  desire 
credit  and  it  is  refused  them  when  the  work  done  in  the  continu- 
ation school  equals  that  done  in  the  high  shool,  one  of  the  pur- 
poses of  the  continuation  school  is  defeated. 

In  some  cases  the  continuation  school  is  removed  to  a 
building  remote  from  the  high  school.  When  such  is  the  case, 
the  powerful  stimulus  of  association  with  the  regular  hign  school 
pupils  is  remiOved.  Again,  the  seme  purpose  for  the  existence  of 
the  continuation  school  tends  to  be  defeated. 

Sometimes  the  pupil  is  in  the  junior  high  school  or 
even  in  the  senior  high  school  before  he  enters  industry.  Then 
he  finds  himself  in  the  continuation  school.  If  this  institution 


-66- 

is  not  highly  respected  by  the  high  school  authorities  he  may  feel 
that  he  has  taken  a step  backward  and  his  academic  interest  may 
wane.  As  a sister  institution  whose  work  is  worthy  of  doing,  the 
continuation  school  ought  to  serve  a better  purpose;  hence,  it 
should  have  the  stahding  that  will  best  assist  it  to  serve  the 
people.  It  is  both  a feeder  and  a receiver  of  the  product  of  the 
high  schools. 

Its  Relation  to  Higher  Institutions 

At  the  present  time  the  continuation  school  has  little 
connection  with  the  institutions  of  higher  learning.  Nevertheless, 
it  is  true  that  an  indirect  relation  exists  is  some  cases.  If  a 
pupil  in  the  continuation  school  learns  some  trade,  such  as  that 
of  the  machinist,  and  this  kno’wledge  gives  him  a desire  to  advance 
further,  he  may  enter  the  technical  school  and  advance  until  he 
becomes  a specialist  in  some  field.  Sometimes  entrance  require- 
ments must  be  made  up  and  rather  than  do  this  the  pupil  aoce^ts 
his  lot  in  life  at  the  end  of  his  continuation  sc’^ool  career. 

One  of  the  hopes  of  the  continuation  school  people  is  t'-at  all 
work  of  regular  high  school  grc?,de  will  in  the  near  future  receive 
high  school  credit  and  that  unnecessary  unit  requirements  for  ad- 
mission to  institutions  of  higher  learning  will  be  abolished. 

Then  the  work  done  in  the  continuation  school  will  be  propadeutic 
in  entrance  value  as  well  as  in  industrial  method  and  social 
contact , 

The  Usual  Relationship 

The  usual  relationship  between  the  continuation  school 
and  the  traditional  school  system  is  shown  in  Illustration  I. on 


1 


I 


-67 


Illustration  I 


i 


-68- 

page  67  . The  verical  diagram  at  the  left  represents  the  tradition- 
al public  school  with  the  8-4  division,  the  upper  section  repre- 
senting the  college  or  university.  The  numbers  at  the  left  refer 
to  the  grades  of  the  public  school  system.  The  vertical  figure  on 
the  right  represents  the  continuation  school.  The  arrows  connect- 
ing the  two  schools  show  the  flowing  of  pupils  from  one  to  the 
other.  Arrow  "a”  shows  the  pupil  at  the  age  of  fourteen  or  over 
who  may  be  retarded  three  grades  or  more  and  who  is  entering  the 
continuation  school.  The  other  ariows  have  similar  meanings. 

The  arrows  pointing  downward  fiom  the  continuation  school  to  the 
high  school  show  the  return  of  the  pupil  to  the  high  school  f rr m 
the  continuation  school  with  perhaps  little  or  no  credit  given 
by  the  former  institution  for  v;ork  successfully  done  in  the  latter. 

Obviously,  from  the  administrative  point  of  view  this 
relationship  is  not  the  most  desirable.  In  the  first  place,  the 
continuation  school  is  distinctly  a separate  institution;  and  in 
the  second  place,  sometimes  its  work  is  n t recognized  by  the 
regular  high  school  to  the  extent  that  will  best  connote  success 
to  the  former  and  promote  friendly  relations  between  the  t^. 

Control 

Three  more  or  less  distinct  types  of  control  of  the 
continuation  school  exist.  In  some  cases  the  control  is  vested 
in  the. same  officers  as  that  of  the  regular  all-day  schools.  The 
same  board  of  education  is  responsible  to  the  people;  the  same 
superintendent  in  turn  is  employed  by  arid  is  responsible  to  the 
board  of  education.  This  ’’unit  plan  of  control"  does  not  prevent 
the  Superintendent  from  delegating  any  powers  to  his  subordinates 
as  he  sees  fit.  In  theory,  the  system  is  a unit,  the  continuation 


-69- 


school  or  class  being  an  integral  part  of  the  public  school  system. 
Some  of  the  important  arguments  for  this  scheme  will  be  considered 
later.  One  of  the  most  importa  t arguments  advanced  against  the 
”unit  plan  of  control"  is'*1ihat  under  this  plan  the  continuation 
school  will  be  co  bound  by  tradition  that  progressive  action  will 


be  impossible. 

The  "dual  plan  of  controiy  on  the  other  hand,  means 
that  the  continuation  schools  or  classes  are  under  different  admini- 
strative authorities.  A manufacturing  plant  might  control  the  con- 
tinuation school  while  a board  of  education  having  little  or  no  con- 
nection with  that  industrial  concern  might  control  the  all-day 
schools,  or  one  board  of  education  might  control  the  former  while 
another  board  of  education  might  control  the  latter.  Theoretically, 
this  means  that  tv/o  systems  instead  of  one  are  created  and  that 
they  openate  independently  of  each  other  so  far  as  control  is  con- 
cerned. The  degree  of  independence,  however,  may  vary;  in  fact,  the 
same  persons  may  be  members  of  both  boards  of  education  and  employ 
the  same  superintendent,  in  which  case  the  policy  pursued  might  be 
just  as  much  a unit  as  if  the  system  were  under  the  "unit  plan  of 
control";  but  such  a case  is  only  possible,  not  probable. 

Some  people  contend  that  the  "dual  plan  of  control"  is 

g 

most  desirable.  To  them  independence  from  the  traditional  system  is 
freedom  to  act  without  restraint  and  the  ability  to  accomplish  re- 
sults for  which  they  stand.  Their  ideals,  sometimes,  are  thought 
to  be  selfish,  but  the  argument  that  independence  from  tradition 


7 Infra,  106  et  ff. 

8 Supra,  51, 


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-70- 

means  the  ability  to  move  more  freely  and  without  deference  to  cus- 
tom is  worthy  of  consideration.  Public  school  administrators  do 
respect  tradition  to  such  an  extent  that  sometimes  where  the  "unit 
plan  of  control"  exists,  the  supervisor  of  continuation  education 
may  be  unable  to  carry  out  his  program  because  the  traditional  a- 
mount  of  Latin  or  mathematics  must  be  required  whether  the  child 
does  or  does  not  need  it.  This  hostility  to  the  work  of  the  con- 
tinuation school  may  come  from  the  superintendent  himself  or  from 
other  administrative  officers  with  whom  the  director  must  deal. 

If  the  principal  of  the  high  school  in  which  the  continuation 
group  is  located  is  adverse  to  the  continuation  school,  he  may  im- 
pede its  efficiency  by  not  giving  it  permission  to  exercise  its 
rights,  as  in  the  use  of  certain  rooms  or  equipment.  Those  who 
favor  the  "unit  plan  of  control"  answer  this  argument  by  declaring 
that  any  principal  or  other  officer  who  will  not  cooperate  ought  to 
be  removed.  They  are  answered  in  turn  by  being  asked,  "What  would 
be  done  if  the  superintendent  were  adverse  to  the  continuation  work 
and  if  the  board  of  education  did  not  realize  the  proper  relations 
contended  for?"  The  former  reply  that  if  such  a case  were  to  be 
found  an  appeal  to  the  people  would  be  necessary,  but  that  such  a 
case  could  hardly  be  found.  If  the  argument  is  carried  to  the  ex- 
treme, it  is  evident  that  an  injustice  may  exist,  one  that  could 
not  be  avoided  under  the  "unit  plan  of  control." 

The  "dual  plan  of  control"  is  denounced  on  the  grounds 
that  segregation  of  the  two  systems  tends  to  destroy  an  important: 
purpose  of  the  continuation  school,  the  leading  of  pupils  back  in- 
to the  all-day  schools;  that  the  great  social  advantage  of  asso- 
ciation with  the  mass  of  pupils  of  all  classes  is  denied:  that  un- 


I 


-71- 

justifiable  expenses  are  incurred  in  the  erection  of  new  buildings 
and  in  obtaining  equipment,  much  of  which  expense  is  a duplication; 
and  that  the  ”dual  plan  of  control”  does  not  always  mean  public 
control  which  is  considered  more  beneficial  than  private  control. 

The  objection  that  seems  to  the  author  to  be  most  valid  is  that  a 
separate  control  is  no  more  justifiable  for  continuation  work  than 
for  eighth  grade  work,  or  for  vocational  stidies  than  for  civic 
studies. 

The  third  plan  of  control  is  the  "associate  plan  of  con- 
trol" which  is  in  force  in  Wisconsin  at  the  present  time.  This  plan 
provides  for  serai-independence,  yet  semi-dependence.  The  continu- 
ation board  of  education  is  appointed  by  the  local  board  of  educa- 
tion and  must  consist  of  two  employers,  two  employees,  and  the  local 
superintendent  of  schools.  Its  advocates  claim  that  under  this 
plan  the  board  members  have  more  interest  in  the  work  because  of 
their  nearness  to  it,  that  they  select  better  teachers,  that  they 
are  not  bound  by  tradition,  that  dissatisfaction  because  of  differ- 
ent salaries  in  the  different  systems  is  eliminated,  that  the 

Q 

two  systems  are  linked  together  by  the  same  superintendent:  These 

arguments  are  answered  in  various  ways  by  opponents  from  both 
systems.  Some  say  that  the  mere  personnel  of  the  board  makes  the 
superintendent  choose  to  vote  -either  wi^h  the  conservative  or  with 
the  radical  group  in  nearly  every  case,  thus  causing  embarrassing 
relations  because  each  class  that  is  represented  tends  to  look  af- 
ter class  interests  rather  than  public  interests;  that  this  plan 
does  not  insure  better  teachers  because  the  superintendent  should 
nominate  all  teachers  and  in  doing  so  is  likely  to  show  no  partial- 

9 State  Board  of  Industrial  Educat:. on,  Wisconsin,  Biennial  Reoort, 
1914,  25^27. 


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IS 'a-. 


-72- 

ity,  that  in  many  particulars  the  superintendent  should  begin  with 
traditional  work  and  proceed  towards  a more  scientific  basis,  that 
no  cause  for  dissatisfaction  exists  if  a salary  schedule  is  ad- 
hered to,  and  that  the  "associate  plan  of  control"  may  not  link 
the  school  systems  together  since  one  is  not  bound  by  tradition 
while  the  other  is.  Thns  most  of  the  arguments  for  this  kind  of 
control  suffer  refutation  as  do  the  arguiments  for  the  "dual  system 
of  control." 

The  Inauguration  of  The  Continuation  School 

For  the  establishment  of  the  continuation  school  no 
set  of  rules  can  be  laid  down  that  will  be  applicable  to  all  com- 
munities or  to  all  situations.  Nevertheless  a few  general  state- 
ments of  activities  which  seem  plausible  in  certain  situations 
are  worthy  of  inclusion.  A careful  survey  of  the  feeling  of  the 
community  should  be  made  by  the  chief  executive  of  the  school 
board  or  under  his  direction  because  the  pulse  of  the  community 
is  the  best  norm  for  measuring  the  probable  success  of  any  public 
enterprise.  Of  course  popular  feeling  ebbs  and  flows  as  situations 
and  general  knowledge  change.  A community  that  is  opposed  to  this 
kind  of  institution  might  be  converted  by  a strong  and  wise  super- 
intendent. Certainly  the  chances  seem  good  if  the  industrial 
environment  has  become  extremely  complex  and  if  the  need  finds 
expression  from  various  local  organizations.  Before  a continuation 
school  is  established  the  board  of  education  should  know  definitely 
that  a need  exists  and  that  the  idea  can  be  carried  out  or  else 
it  should  be  confident  that  it  will  be  able  to  arouse  enough  in- 
terest to  make  a need  felt.  If  opposition  is  too  strong,  the 


-73- 

iDOvement  probably  should  not  be  started  unless  the  leaders  are 
people  of  ability  who  are  willing  to  risk  their  positions  on  the 
results  of  the  outcome  or  else  unless  statutory  provision  may  re- 
quire such  an  action. 

If  the  leaders  are  assured  that  a sufficient  need 
exists  and  if  funds  are  available,  the  employment  of  a competent 
campaign  director  is  in  order.  Sometimes  such  a director  can  be 
found  in  the  local  school  system.  Such  a person  should  have  both 
business  and  social  characteristics.  He  should  be  a person  both 
of  experience  and  of  skill  in  the  management  of  popular  campaigns. 
He  should  study  carefully  the  number  of  working  permits,  the  re- 
sults of  the  school  census  and  of  the  f*ederal  government  census, 
the  industries  of  the  district,  and  such  other  factors  as  races 
living  in  the  district,  languages  spoken  by  them,  funds  available 
for  the  use  of  the  continuation  school,  and  its  future  possibili- 
ties. The  campaign  should  be  launched  by  the  campaign  director 
who  will  enlist  the  aid  as  far  as  possible  of  such  loaal  organi- 
zations as  employers'  associations,  labor  unions,  fraternities, 
churches,  and  women's  clubs.  The  needs  of  the  community  should 
receive  publicity  and  the  part  of  the  continuation  school  in  reme- 
dying those  needs  should  be  explained  carefully.  Every  nationality 
whose  influence  will  affect  the  success  of  the  campaign  to  any 
material  degree  should  be  reached  through  such  means  as  printed 
material  in  the  vernacular  of  each  groi^^.  If  the  state  law  re- 
quires a popular  vote  for  the  establishment  of  the  institution  the 
supporters  should  make  sure  that  a greater  number  than  a plurality 
of  votes  be  ca  t for  the  measure  so  that  its  permanence  will  be 
insured  against  any  probable  reaction  on  that  part  of  the  public 


-74- 

who  because  of  some  dissatisfaction  might  add  some  weight  to  the 
original  negative  vote  in  a new  election. 

Sometimes  the  campaign  will  be  bitter;  when  such  is 
the  case,  the  appointment  of  the  campaign  director  as  supervisor 
of  the  continuation  work  likely  would  be  very  inexpedient.  Also 
it  does  not  follow  that  a man  of  political  ability  would  make  a 
good  supervisor  in  this  field.  As  soon  as  the  establishment  of 
the  continuation  school  has  been  decided  upon,  a supervisor  of 
this  work  should  be  sought,  ne  should  be  put  ”on  the  job"  at  the 
appropriate  time  so  that  little  delay  will  be  caused  when  the 
auspicious  moment  for  opening  the  school  arrives. 

The  supervisor  of  continuation  education  should  be 
a man  of  superior  ability,  h©  should  have  a good  academic  and 
professional  background  as  well  as  considerable  industrial  ex- 
perience. A man  with  the  right  kind  of  education,  training,  and 
experience  can  do  much  to  heal  maiiy  of  the  wounds  that  usually 
unavoidably  come  in  the  conduct  of  the  popular  campaign.  In 
case  only  one  school  is  established,  this  supervisor  should  be 
the  delegated  executive  of  it;  if  mors  than  one  school  is  es- 
tablished, he  should  have  the  power  of  consultation  in  the  nomi- 
nation of  the  principals  and  with  their  assistance  the  teachers 
of  all  of  the  continuation  schools. 

The  supervisor  is  an  invaluable  asset  or  liability  in 
the  second  campaign  which  is  one  of  cooperation,  jts  success  de- 
pends largely  upon  him.  It  rfiUSt  be  begun  wisely  and  waged  tact- 
fully in  order  that  the  opposing  sentiment  may  turn  and  crystal- 
lise in  favor  of  the  institution.  He  nor  anyone  else  can  not  lay 
down  any  specific  set  of  rules  that  can  bre  applied  successfully 


-7f - 

to  all  situations,  iDut  every  available  source  that  is  positivelj/" 
beneficial  must  be  enlisted.  The  ability  of  the  supervisor  to 
handle  men  usually  will  become  prominent  when  labor  is  solicited 
to  support  the  movement.  Labor  interests  shonld  by  all  means  be 
consulted  because  the  ocintinuation  school  pupils  come  in  the  large 
majority  of  oases  from  the  homes  of  laborers  who  approve  the  con- 
tinuation school  when  they  understand  it  and  when  it  is  tactfully 
conducted.  Vaughn  says  that  if  labor  has  not  been  shown  the  value 
of  this  institution,  one  of  the  first  objections  will  be  raised  by 
the  labor  unions  whose  numbers  feel  that  the  trade  preparatory  and 
trade  extension  schools  will  prepare  workers  who  will  flood  the  in- 
dustries in  ‘Which  they  are  engaged  with  such  great  numbers  that 
wages  will  be  lowered  thereby. In  many  German  cities  the  labor 
unions  force  their  apprentices  to  attend  the  continuation  schools 
and  in  various  cities  of  the  United  States  they  look  upon  the  con- 
tinuation school  as  an  institution  very  favorable,  to  their  inter- 
ests.^^ This  shows  that  the  unions  support  the  continuation  school 
with  much  vigor  when  tactfully  handled.  Adverse  action  by  any 
trade  u'nion  should  be  forestalled  by  a cultivation  of  mutual 
friendship  between  their  leaders  and  members  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  continuation  school  authorities  and  advocates  on  the  other. 

Another  important  group  ‘whom  the  continuation  author- 
ities must  convince  is  the  employers.  In  this  action  the  super- 
visor of  the  work  stands  in  a position  to  render  untold  assistance. 
Some  of  this  class  are  usually  opposed  to  the  continuation  school 
because  invariably  their  juvenile  employees  of  compulsory  age 

10  Vaughn,  S.  J.,  Lectures  on  Vocational  Education. 

11  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Bulletin  No.  19,  1318,  31. 


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-76- 

will  be  required  to  leave  their  tasks  during  the  time  when  usual- 
ly they  have  been  at  work.  Adverse  employers  must  be  convinced 
that  the  school  will  add  to  t’re  efficiency  of  the  children  whom 
they  employ.  Where  automatic  or  semi-automatic  machines  are  be- 
ing used,  the  task  will  be  difficult  perhaps.  However,  if  the 
employers  can  be  induced  to  investigate  what  other  employers  who 
have  tried  the  continuation  school  think  of  it,  they  very  likely 
at  least  will  give  it  a trial.  Some  such  people  become  enthusi- 
astic supporters  of  the  plan  when  a thorough  trial  has  been  given. 
Humanitarian ism,  as  a century  ago,  may  be  called  into  action  and 
become  a potent  force  in  inducing  employers  to  support  the  move- 
ment during  the  time  when  it  is  on  trial.  In  order  to  accomplish 
successful  results  it  becomes  imperative  that  the  man  at  the  helm 
be  a man  of  brains  and  action. 

The  support  of  civic,  commercial,  rotary,  and  Kiwanis 
clubs  was  mentioned  above  in  connection  with  the  campaign.  Their 
aids  still  should  be  continued,  because  they  can  do  much  to  in- 
still the  spirit  of  cooperative  fellowship,  especially  among  mem- 
bers of  their  own  orders.  Fraternities,  both  sec'-et  and  non- 
secret, oan  render  valua'^^'le  aid  in  such  a campaign.  Churches  by 
means  of  their  pastors  and  other  leaders  can  add  force  to,  and 
instill  a spirit  of  sympathy  for  this  movement  in  many  cases. 
Organizations  of  influential  ladies  are  a valuable  asset  in  a cam- 
paign for  cooperation  because  they  often  have  both  the  energy  and 
time  that  is  necessary  for  the  propagation  of  such  movements.  Of 
course  the  local  situations  will  determine  just  what  organisations 
should  be  enlisted  in  this  work.  If  success  io  the  goal  to  be 
attained  no  organization  whose  influence  might  be  a detriment 


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-77- 

should  have  an  active  part  in  the  csjupaign  for  cooperation.  One 
hundred  per  cent  efficiency  hardly  ever  will  be  attained  in  such 
a campaign;  this  movement , like  most  other  great  movements  will 
have  some  opposition.  Hence,  its  limits  are  not  clearly  defined. 

The  preliminary  survey  that  was  made  by  the  campaign 
director  usually  should  not  be  accepted  as  final,  unless  mjore 
thorough  work  was  done  than  was  suggested  above.  But  why  was  it 
not  made  in  sufficient  detail  in  the  first  place?  There  is  no 
objection  to  this  procedure  so  far  as  the  writer  is  concerned; 
in  fact  there  would  be  some  distinct  advantages  for  the  director 
to  have  a complete  survey  made  at  the  beginning,  but  on  the  other 
ha- d the  expense  involved  and  the  time  required  to  do  the  work 
would  be  so  great  that  many  administrators  v/ould  not  justify  it 
when  the  reality  of  the  school’s  being  established  is  a matter  of 
doubt.  In  some  cases  if  enough  time  were  taken  for  an  absolutely 
accurate  survey  at  the  beginning  of  the  campaign,  the  most  aus- 
picious time  fo:-’  its  launching  might  pass  before  the  survey  could 
be  completed.  Yet  definite  f cts  to  present  in  tre  campaign  might 
in  other  cases  help  to  make  the  campaign  a success. 

The  facts  obtained  in  this  survey  may  differ  from  com- 
munity to  community.  They  include  such  items  as  the  number  of 
children  of  continuation  school  age  who  are  in  emplo3'-ment , the 
number  of  juvenile  vacancies  and  positions  in  tl^  community,  the 
kinds  of  work  at  which  th  children  are  engaged,  the  age  of  t^^e 
children,  their  appa  ent  interests,  their  home  conditions,  the 
industries  of  their  ov;n  community  and  of  adjacent  communities, 
and  the  probable  future  of  such  industries.  From  each  list  of 
conditions  which  the  supervisor  has  deter"- ined  he  will  likely  ob- 


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-78- 

tain  results  that  .vill  aid  materially  in  the  conduct  of  this  in- 
stitution. All  of  the  data  that  have  been  obtained  in  this  sur- 
vey should  be  tabulated  carefully  and  preserved  for  future  use. 

If  certain  conditions  have  been  discovered  accurately  in  the  first 
survey,  no  need  for  duplication  exists.  All  material  should  be 
studied  carefully  because  the  conclusions  dra'/m  from  it  may  render 
invaluable  aid  in  providing  for  the  highes’t  efficiency  of  the  school 

What  Type  of  Class  or  School  Should  Be  Established? 

The  ans7/er  to  this  question  should  be  derived  from  the 
facts  which  the  survey  has  furnished.  If  the  survey  shows  that  a 
large  number  of  prospective  pupils  are  engaged  in  certain  occupa- 
tions which  have  a promising  future  and  with  7/hich  the  abilities 
of  these  pupils  are  commensurate  with  the  work  they  are  doing  or 
expect  to  do,  a trade  extension  class  or  school  should  be  started 
which  will  provide  instruction  in  those  trades  or  occupations 
where  the  demand  is  greatest,  providing  that  other  factors  do  not 
make  the  plan  inadvisable.  If  on  the  otheT  hand,  the  survey  ee- 
veals  that  a large  number  of  pupils  are  employed  at  jobs  whose 
future  ')ffers  little  or  no  opportunity  for  advancement  and  ths-t 
they  are  unprepared  to  do  any  other  job  of  importance,  a trade 
preparatory  class  or  school  should  be  established  to  meet  their 
needs.  If  the  survey  shows  that  due  to  a lack  of  general  educa- 
tion several  pupils  are  handicapped  and  unable  to  advance  higher 
in  industry,  a general  continuation  school  or  class  shouH  be  start- 
ed for  them. 

Hence,  it  is  possible  that  all  three  types  of  continu- 
ation education  will  be  offered  in  the  same  building  and  under  the 
same  management.  If  all  three  types  are  needed  and  funds  are  not 


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-79- 

available  to  conduct  them,  then  the  type  :r  t3»'pes  must  be  chosen 
which  will  serve  the  most  pupils,  othei  factors  being  equal.  One 
of  the  greatest  problems  arises  in  the  case  where  the  survey  re- 
veals only  a small  number  of  pupils  who  are  eligible  to  attend. 

An  illustration  of  a class  which  was  orgcuiized  not  on 
the  basic  principle  of  purpose  is  worth  while  at  this  point:  The 

class  was  composed  of  about  "30  boys  between  fourteen  and  sixteen 
years  of  age  who  were  required  to  return  to  the  school  sight  hours 
each  week.  There  were  two  cotton  glove  cutters,  two  cigsr  fac- 
tory workers,  three  machinist  apprentices,  four  errand  boys,  and 
six  delivery  boys,  the  remainder  being  occupied  in  twelve  miscel- 
laneous occupations.  The  technical  instruction  included  two  hours 
of  machine  shop  drawing,  and  two  hours  of  machine  shop  mathematics, 
while  the  four  hours  of  academic  instruction  included  English, 
spelling,  geography,  history,  and  physical  training.  It  was  said 
that  the  employers  felt  justified  in  giving  the  boys  the  time  to 
return  to  school,  because  the  technical  instruction  made  them 
more  efficient  in  their  factory  work.  As  a matter  of  fact,  the 
technical  instruction  was  related  to  the  work  of  but  three  of  the 
whole  group,  and  even  v/ith  these,  the  lack  of  coordination  be- 
tween shop  problems  and  school  ins '.ruction,  made  the  v/ork  entirely 
academic.  The  city  was  large  enough  so  that  youths  with  similar 

needs  could  have  been  enrolled  in  separate  classes,  thus  making 

12 

the  instruction  purposeful."  If  this  city  had  not  been  large 
enough  for  such  a division,  what  logically  should  have  been  done? 
Perhaps  the  entire  time  should  have  been  spent  in  general  continu- 


12  Ibid.,  27. 


f- 


-80- 

ation  work  until  the  general  needs  of  the  pupils  were  satisfied, 
if  the  survey  showed  that  they  needed  more  education  of  a general 
type.  No  hard  and  fast  rule  can  be  determined  because  the  indi- 
vidual needs  of  each  pupil  are  not  known  in  the  case  just  cited. 

In  some  cases  the  establishment  of  a continuation 
school  is  not  advisable  at  all.  If  the  sentiment  of  the  community 
is  one  of  opposition,  if  sufficient  funds  cannot  be  obtained,  if 
adequate  equipment  cannot  be  procured,  and  if  competent  teachers 
cannot  be  employed,  the  wisdom  of  its  establishment  is  question- 
able. If  the  enrollment  is  very  small,  perhaps  the  gene'’’al  con- 
tinuation class  should  be  started  first  and  the  other  types  of 
work  can  be  added  as  necessity  demands. 

Where  Should  Continuation  Classes  Meet? 

This  is  a disputed  question  but  one  which  all  adminis- 
trators who  establish  continuation  schools  or  classes  are  forced 
to  answer.  In  1S18  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education 
issued  the  following  statement:  ’’Classes  should  be  formed  where- 

ever  most  convenient,  is  school,  store,  factory,  or  shop,  and 
shall  not  be  confined  to  educational  buildings. In  1921  a re- 
port of  the  Commission  on  The  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education, 
appointed  by  the  National  Educational  Association  contained,  these 
statements  in  its  summary  of  recommendations:  ’’That  in  cities 
and  towns  having  only  one  high  school,  the  continuation  group  be 
located  in  that  high  school”  and  ’’That  in  cities  having  more  than 
one  high  school,  the  continuation  group  be  located  in  that  school 
or  in  those  schools,  whose  location  is  favorable,  instead  of 


13  Ibid.,  27. 


-81- 

establishing  separate  continuation  schools. 

The  vievTpoint  of  the  comiriiSLion  meets  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  author  so  far  as  the  theoretical  situation  is  con- 
cerned, but  when  such  conditions  exist  as  an  over-crowded  con- 
dition or  a lack  of  neaessary  funds’  in  the  high  school,  the  estab- 
lishment of  continuation  classes  in  the  stores,  factories,  and 
other  places  of  employment  is  appropriate  and  their  existence 
there  is  warranted  until  a situation  is  brought  about  by  which 

the  continu-ction  classes  or  school  may  be  incorporated  into  the 

15 

comprehensive  high  school.  However,  su  di  factors  as  the  time 
situation  are  important  questions  that  must  be  taken  into  account 
before  the  latter  practice  is  determined  upon.  In  considering 
this  question  as  well  as  the  other  policies  of  the  continuation 
school  common  sense  must  be  the  gtiide  even  though  it  contradict 
some  theoretical  principle. 

Types  of  Organization 

How  can  the  continuation  school  be  organized  so  that 
it  will  allow  pupils  to  perform  their  tasks  and  yet  attend  school? 
This  is  another  question  which  every  continuation  school  adminis- 
trator should  be  able  to  answer  and  one  which,  if  answered  proper- 
ly, will  eliminate  one  of  the  common  complaints  against  the  con- 
tinuation school:  i,  e.  that  it  is  not  adapted  to  the  employers' 
convenience.  Several  types  of  organization  have  been  tried  and 
have  proved  successful,  a few  of  which  have  been  included  in  this 
discussion.  Sometimes  a combination  of  types  is  necessary  to 
accomodate  all  workers  and  employers. 

14  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  5,  1921,  19. 

15  Infra,  106  et  ff. 


* \ ■»  ‘ 


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♦' 


i 


H' 

f 


-82- 

The  ”off-tirae  plan”  has  "been  received  with  much  satis- 
faction by  a number  of  industrial  establishments.  This  plan  al- 
lows the  pupils  to  take  time  from  the  regular  working  day  to  at- 
tend the  continuation  school.  Most  of  the  employers  in  Spring- 
field,  Illinois,  give  the  pupils  not  only  the  time  to  attend  the 
Qontinualion  school  eight  hours  per  week,  but  they  also  pay  them 
for  the  time  during  which  they  are  in  attendance  at  this  insti- 
tution. As  a rule  whsreever  such  a plan  is  adopted,  the  daily 
schedule  of  the  pupils  is  adjusted  so  that  the  pupil  may  attend 
at  the  time  or  the  times  which  will  least  inconvenience  the  em- 
ployer. ^For  instance,  let  us  assume  that  Monday  morning  and 
Wednesday  afternoon  are  times  when  little  business  is  being  done 
in  some  industry  where  children  are  employed  who  are  attending 
the  continuation  school.  If  the  pupils  are  required  to  attend 
eight  hours  per  week,  the  schedule  is  eo  arranged  that  the  pu- 
pils from  this  particular  concern  can  attend  four  of  the  eight 
hours  on  Monday  morning,  doing  half  of  their  work  then,  and  four 
hours  on  Wednesday  afternoon,  doing  the  other  half  at  that  time. 
Some  industries  find  this  plan  most  convenient  because  of  the 
fact  that  certain  hours  in  their  business  are  regularly  dull. 

But  other  industries  do  not  have  regular  hours  during  which  time 
business  is  at  a low  stage,  and  they  are  unable  to . spare  the 
children  from  the  machines  at  any  stated  time.  As  typical  of 
this  kind  of  industry  attention  is  called  to  the  textile  industry 
which  is  a means  of  earning  a livelihood  for  thousands  of  child- 
ren in  the  South.  In  order  to  keep  the  mills  running  and  yet  to 
give  the  children  a chance  to  improve  themselves  educationally 
four  methods  are  used  for  the  instruction  of  the  juvenile  workers: 


■33- 


(l)  A small  number  of  "spare  hands"  are  employed  who 
act  as  substitutes  for  the  children  during  the  time  that  they 
are  undergoing  instruction.  This  means  that  the  force  of 
juvenile  workers  must  be  increased  by  about  one-sixth.  Some  em- 
ployers object  to  this  type  of  substitution  because  of  the  extra 
expense,  but  if  the  working  force  is  not  increased  out  of  pro- 
portion and  the  children  are  not  paid  for  the  time  during  which 
instruction  is  being  given  little  additional  expense  is  necessary. 

(S)  Some  firms  want  to  use  the  "flying  squadron"'  as 
a substitution  in  order  that  their  mills  may  keep  running.  These 
firms  employ  extra  hands  who  go  from  room  to  room  to  relieve 
the  workers  for  an  hour  or  so  each  day  or  half-day.  The  time  of 
relief  may  be  less  than  an  hour.  While  each  pupil  is  resting  he 
spends  his  time  in  the  cont iniiat ion  school  if  it  is  located  in 
the  factory  or  adjacent  to  it.  This  method  implies  that  the 
process  of  manufacture  is  "speeded  up"'  to  the  maximum  and  that 
the  children  are  rushed  to  such  an  extent  that  rest  periods  are 
necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  the  health  of  the  workers, 

(3)  Another  method  used  in  the  "Off-time  Plan"  is  the 
doubling  up"  method.  This  implies  that  the  pupils  have  regular 
times  for  instruction  and  that  during  these  times  other  persons 
do  their  work  in  addition  to  their  own.  A miller  who  normally 
runs  one  sacking  machine  will  be  required  to  run  that  of  his 
neighbor  also.  If  he  is  accustomed  to  run  two  machines  he  may 
be  required  to  run  three;  and  thereby  the  employer  suffers  only 
a small  loss.  Many  industries,  however,  are  organized  in  such  a 
way  as  to  make  this  plan  impracticable. 


-84- 


(4)  In  some  factories  that  employ  child  labor  the  "sur- 
plus plan"  is  used.  The  several  departments  have  more  machines 
than  is  necessary  to  keep  the  next  department  aioove  supplied 
with  material.  If  these  machines  are  run  at  full  capacity  a 
surplus  will  accumulate.  Then  the  children  are  required  to 
attend  the  continuation  school  until  the  department  just  above 
has  "caught  up"'  when  they  return  to  the  factory  and  begin  to 
accumulate  another  surplus.  The  Unity  Cotton  Mills  at  Lagrange, 
Georgia,  uses  this  plan  very  successfully. 

Another  plan  that  has  met  with  much  approval  is  the 
alternate  plan.  This  plan  of  part-time  continuation  education 
was  made  famous  by  the  College  of  Engineering  of  the  University 
of  Cincinnati.  In  such  an  arrangement  the  pupil  works  for  a 
definite  period  of  time  and  then  attends  school  for  another 
definite  period  which  usually  is  equal  in  length  to  the  former. 
The  period  used  in  the  University  of  Cincinnati  was  a week. 

This  experiment  proved  so  successful  that  sich  schools  as  the 
Fichburg  School  in  Massachusetts  are  using  it  at  the  present 
time.  At  Spartanburg,  South  Carolina  the  textile  industries 
use  this  plan  very  successfully.  A shorter  period  could  be  used 
just  as  well.  The  Pacolet  Manufacturing  Company  of  New  Holland, 
Georgia  is  using  the  half-day  period.^"^ 

The  "Cff-season  or  Shut-down  Plan"  is  esjecially 
adapted  to  certain  industries  and  seasonal  trades.  The  brick- 
layers and  masons  of  Chicago  early  showed  the  value  of  this 
plan.  They  encouraged  their  apprentices  to  attend  this  school 
during  the  time  when  they  were  unable  to  work  steadily  because 

16  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education, Bullet in  No. 30, 1919 

17  Ibid., 38 


-85- 


of  climatic  conditions.  Coal  miners  could  profitably  require 
their  prentices  to  attend  a continuation  school  during  the 
periodic  striJces  that  occur  at  the  expiration  of  their  agree- 
ments with  the  operators  and  during  the  frequent  shut-downs 
that  occur  for  miscellaneous  reasons.  Establishments  sometime  i 
are  forced  to  close  because  of  a multiplicity  of  reasons  during 
which  periods  a continuation  school  could  be  operated  which 
would  fulfill  the  legal  requirements  and  give  valuable  contin- 
uation instruction  en  masse. 

The  "P reemployment  or  Vestibule  School”  is  a school 
usually  located  in  the  manufacturing  plant  or  industrial  estab- 
lishment and  its  business  is  to  teach  the  pupil  how  to  do  the 
task  for  which  he  is  hired.  It  performs  this  function  before 
the  child  is  permitted  to  enter  employment,  or  at  least  it  pre- 
pares him  to  do  the  job  in  a creditable  manner  before  he  is 
allowed  to  attempt  it.  Under  this  plan  an  expert  milling  machine 
operator  teaches  several  students  who  expect  to  operate  milling 
machines  until  they  become  proficient  in  that  work.  John  L. 
Patterson,  manager  of  the  Rosemary  manufacturing  Company  of 
Roanoke  Rapids,  North  Carolina,  after  having  the  vestibule 
scheme  in  operation  for  quite  a while,  said, 

"These  teachers  devote  their  time  to  showing  the  new 
operatives  assigned  to  them  how  to  do  the  work  properly.  We  of 
course  pay  the  teachers  as  much,  in  fact  slightly  more,  for 
doing  this  work  than  they  were  able  to  make  before.  The  results 
we  are  getting  from  this  system  are  very  gratifying  and  we 
confidently  believe  that  satisfactory  operatives  can  be  developed 
in  this  way  within  half  of  the  time,  or  possibly  one-third  of 


-86- 

the  time,  that  they  can  be  if  placed  with  weavers  or  spinners  with 

a full  job  on  their  hands,  and  no  especial  incentive  *:o  properly 

teach  the  inexperienced  ones."  He  had  selected  his  teachers  from 

the  best  experts  in  his  plant,  and  his  corps  consisted  of  "two 

teachers  from  each  of  the  three  weave  rooms,  and  one  teacher  each 

from  each  of  the  three  spinning  rooms,  making  nine  in  all."^® 

The  administrator  must  familiarize  himself  thoroughly 

with  the  types  of  organization  that  have  been  used  successfully  and 

with  any  other  that  might  be  adaptable  to  his  own  situation.  The 

basis  for  his  decision  as  to  which  plan  or  plans  best  suit  his  own 

system  will  be  the  data  obtained  in  the  surveys  and  the  information 

which  he  obtains  from  consultation  with  the  heads  of  the  various 

industrial  establishments.  The  daily  schedule  will  be  relatively 

easy  to  adjust  under  any  of  the  above  plans  except  the  "Off-time" 

plan  which  in  one  of  its  forms  will  likely  be  used  for  some  of  the 

classes.  Hence,  the  discussion  of  it  is  in  order. 

The  Daily  Schedule  of  The  Qff-Time  Plan 

The  schedule  of  classes  is  of  considerable  importance  in 

any  school.  No  state  makes  full  provisions  regarding  the  program 

but  it  may  set  the  time  limits  per  week  and  occasionally  per  class. 

In  general,  state  authorities  provide  a list  of  subjects  which  they 

recommend  to  be  taught,  but  the  lists  are  usually  elastic  and 

considerable  freedom  is  allowed  especially  in  the  vocational 

subjects.  The  Boston  Continuation  School  has  a flexible  schedule 

which  in  this  particular  meets  the  needs  in  that  city.^^  The  State 

Supervisor  of  Industrial  Education  for  Illinois  advises  the  use 

of  the  following  schedule  which  is  a modification  of  the  one 

18  Ibid.,  33. 

19  Vocational  Summary,  June,  1919,  36. 


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'■"»;<;  “i'n  a«i  J ayi.j|?t!' ’ 

- .'.  ■ ‘L  ■v;.‘  ■„  .■'■>*  ,\,  ::"  '■V'.',,",'.  . '.V.  :■ 


k'F'  * r.  aJk  * i^'i,:jfc,tA 


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^ .ii'  i' |?’ ' ;_  „ . _ < 

' ' ■ !■  r . .yi»mj  ' * .'lU  * ^ ® ■ 


il  .■  ■>.  ■ J»!*'  Llkiiy^'.V . i ".. 


-87- 

Evans  used  in  Boston: 


Time 

Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday 

I'hursdav 

Friday 

8:C0-  9:00 

a 

E 

c 

F 

a 

9:;00-10:00 

b 

d 

b 

10:00-11:00 

c 

F 

b 

E 

0 

11:00-1B:00 

d 

a 

d 

1:00-3  :00 
2:00-  3:00 

E 

b 

F 

d 

E 

a 

c 

3:00-  4:00 
4:00-  5:00 

F 

d 

E 

a 

F 

c 

b 

If  in  the  above  schedule  a,b,c,  and  d represent  courses 
offered,  such  as  general  continuation  or  theoretical  vocational 
courses  but  not  laboratory  or  shop  subjects,  the  reader  can  see 
that  the  pupil  might  attend  school  Monday  morning  at  which  time 
he  would  study  these  subjects.  If  likewise  E and  F represent  shop 
or  laborotory  subjects  it  is  evident  too  that  the  pupil  might 
supplement  his  work  with  these  subjects  on  Monday  afternoon, 
Tuesday  morning,  Wednesday  afternoon,  Thursday  morning,  or  Friday 
afternoon.  Since  the  above  schedule  is  arranged  for  a school 
having  only  one  teacher  it  is  clear  that  with  two  teachers  and  a 
little  readjustment  of  the  schedule  any  half-day  combination  can 
be  made.  With  four  teachers  any  two-hour  arrangement  can  be 
worked  out  and  with  more  than  four  teachers  a great  number  of 
possibilities  exists.  The  one  teacher  progrsm,  however,  is  des- 
igned to  accomodate  most  of  the  practical  situations  that  require 
only  one  teacher. 

If  more  than  five  teachers  are  employed  in  the  con- 
tinuation school  and  if  the  above  schedule  plan  is  used  a bulky 
arrangement  results,  because  a separate  schedule  must  be  made  for 
each  teacher.  A single  schedule  cannot  be  made  because  of  the 
irregularity  of  the  hours  of  attendance  of  any  particular  pupil. 


-88- 

Hence,  it  is  better  to  arrange  for  each  day  a schedule  having  a 
separate  program  that  differs  from  the  one  in  use  on  Monday,  A 
schedule  for  Monday  and  Thursday  is  given  below  for  a school  that 
has  nine  teachers.  In  this  schedule  the  assumption  is  made  that 
each  teacher  teaches  eight  hours  daily  which  should  not  be  the  case 

Schedule  for  Monday  and  Thursday 


Time 

Mr,  A 

Miss  B 

,Miss  C 

Mr  ,i) 

Mr.  E 

Mr 

.F  Miss  G 

MissH. 

Myl 

8:  CO-  9:00, 

a 

c 

A 

T 

‘ i 

1 

1 e 



J 

“9":UD^1U:TO 

a 

d 

c 

r 

1 

f f 

h 

ii 

10:C0-il:U0' 

b 

c 

B 

TN 

H 

1 e 

J 

. J\ 

b 

d 

iJ 

0 

1 f 

h 

T:D0-”2TUU 

a 

d 

A 

ri 

TP 

j g 

^ 

■ t'' 

' 'J:0U-  T:UU| 

b 

c 

A 

0 

1 



1 ^ 

1 

3:00-  TiUU 

a 

d 

B 

r* 

UL 

J.  e . 

K' 

4:00-  5:o0 

b- 

a 

JJ 

_J £ 

J] 

With  such  a schedule  only  from  one  to  five  programs  are 
necessary  and  they  can  be  mimeographed  easily  on  a single  page. 

In  this  respect  this  type  of  schedule  is  more  convenient  than  the 
one  suggested  for  the  one-teacher  continuation  school. 

How  The  Continuation  School  Is  Financed 

In  most  European  states  the  continuation  school  is  not 
wholly  supported  by  public  taxation,  although  some  portion  of  its 
cost  may  be  defrayed  by  public  taxes;  in  fact  public  taxation 
raises  only  a small  part  of  the  funds  which  are  regularly  applied 
to  this  kind  of  education.  However,  in  the  United  States  just  the 
opposite  is  true.  Usually  the  entire  school  is  supported  by  public 
taxation  either  directly  of  indirectly.  Until  1917  the  local 
districts  of  the  American  states  that  had  authorized  continuation 
schools  almost  invariably  levied  taxes  for  the  complete  support 
of  these  schools.  In  that  year,  however,  the  Smith-Hughes  Act  was 


I' 


V 


';tri . 

' - - I'  “■ ' ■ .-€  ^ 

' '■■  u 

, ' i|.j 

, . •'  '■  ■■  '•  ' \ * 

■ n \ rz i}rfr ' : v; ,» . •.  « r i. rllt  '' 


f 


i 


k 


-89- 

approved  and  since  1918  federal  aid  has  been  given  annually  for 
that  continuation  education  which  meets  the  approval  of  the 
Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  in  those  states  which 
have  accepted  the  provisions  of  the  act. 

The  Smith-Hughes  Act  provided  that  definite  appropriations 
should  be  made  as  shown  in  Appendix  II  and  required  ”that  at  least 
one-third  of  the  sum  appropriated  to  any  state  for  salaries  of 
teachers  of  trade,  home  economics,  and  industrial  subjects  shall, 
if  expended,  be  applied  to  part-time  schools  or  classes  for 
workers  over  fourteen  years  of  age  who  have  entered  upon  employ- 
ment,"^^ Any  state  had  a right  to  accept  this  proffered  aid  pro- 
viding that  it  matched  the  federal  money  dollar  for  dollar  with 
stats  or  local  funds  or  with  both.  The  act  provided  also  for  the 
creation  of  machinery  for  its  execution  and  for  experiment  along 
lines  for  which  it  had  planned  appropriations.  The  final  executive 
power  was  vested  in  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education, 
but  the  state  administration  was  delegated  to  state  Boards  for 
Vocational  Education. 

This  offer  from  the  federal  government  gave  a sudden  im- 
petus to  the  continuation  school  movement,,  since  in  1917-1918 
^188,666.67  were  available  from  federal  authorities  for  part-time 
work.  This  siraount  was  to  increase  materially  until  in  1925-1926 
and  annually  thereafter  the  amount  given  by  the  federal  government 
for  this  ’work  alone  would  be  $1,016,665.57,  Since  this  sum  must 
be  matched  by  state  or  local  funds  or  by  both,  the  minimum  amount 
available  at  that  time  will  be  $2,033,333.34.  Some  states 
match  the  amount  allot ed  to  them  and  make  the  combined  fund 

20  Smith-Hughes  Act,  Section  11. 

21  See  Appendix  II, 


-90- 

available  to  the  local  community  providing  that  it  matches  dollar 
for  dollar  the  portion  which  it  uses.  This  does  not  mean,  however, 
that  only  one-third  of  the  amount  allotted  to  the  trade,  home 
economic,  and  industrial  subjects  shall  be  spent  for  part-time 
work.  In  fact,  ”it  would  be  entirely  permissible  under  the  act 
for  much  more  than  one-third  of  the  fund  to  be  used  for  part-time 
t raining”’, 

Federal  aid  is  given  only  for  purposes  of  instruction. 

The  local  community  or  state  must  provide  the  buildings  and  equip- 
ment. In  order  to  do  this  a second  method  is  sometimes  used  which 
is  met  by  public  taxation,  use  of  bonds.  Direct  taxation  provides 
the  funds  to  match  the  stats  and  federal  money,  providing  the 
school  is  doing  work  under  the  provisions  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act. 
In  case  the  work  is  not  in  accordance  with  the  Smith-Hughes  pro- 
visions the  expense  is  usually  met  in  its  entirety  by  direct 
taxation.  Endowments  and  bequests  are  seldom  given  to  continuation 
schools  at  the  present  time,  although  in  earlier  days  such  in- 
stitutions as  the  Williamson  Free  School  for  Mechanical  Trades 
began  their  work  as  a result  of  gifts  of  certain  benevolent 
persons  who  had  deep  interests  in  the  younger  generat ion,^^ 

The  Continuation  School  Pupil 

Since  the  continuation  school  pupil  in  so  many  ways  is 
the  secondary  school  pupil  and  since  the  latter  has  been  dealt 
with  so  fully  by  many  prominent  writers  in  the  educational  field, 
only  casual  notice  will  be  given  this  subject  in  an  effort  to 
point  out  how  the  continuation  school  pupil  differs  from  the  pupil 

22  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  Bulletin  No, 19, 1918, 30 

23  Hill,  David  S.,  Introduction  to  Vocationa.  Education, 143 


^ . 


I 

w ' 


i 


-91- 


of  the  Junior  and  senior  high  schools. 

In  the  first  place  as  a rule  the  pupil  in  the  continuation 
school  has  a less  fortunate  home  environment  than  the  pupil  in 
the  latter  institutions.  Sometimes  by  his  parents  he  is  persuaded 
to  enter  industryj  at  other  times  by  force  of  economic  circum- 
stances he  is  required  to  leave  the  all-day  school  and  enter  in- 
dustry. Premature  persuasion  or  coercion  naturally  causes  many 
children  to  miss  much  of  the  school  v7ork  which  society  deems 
fundamental  to  efficiency.  Hence,  the  continuation  school  child 
has  a school  education  usually  inferior  to  that  of  the  all-day 
school  child  of  his  own  age. 

In  the  second  place  the  boy  or  girl  who  attends  the  part- 
time  school  has  missed  much  of  the  social  experience  which  the 
other  boy  or  girl  has  gotten  through  constant  contact  with  other 
pupils  in  the  all-day  school.  The  training  obtained  from  the  meet- 
ing of  children  of  all  classes,  the  results  of  matching  minds 
constantly  for  five  days  per  week,  and  the  influence  which  the 
teachers  have  in  this  constant  contact  can  be  duplicated  in  very 
few  places.  Much  of  this  the  child  in  the  part-time  school  has 
missed,  but  on  the  other  hand  he  has  obtained  an  industrial  out- 
look on  life  far  superior  to  that  which  the  child  in  the  regular 
schools  has.  He  has  met  men  and  women  of  business  capacity  and  in 
dealing  with  them  certainly  a great  deal  of  education  has  been 
obtained.  These  experiences  plus  the  hard  life  of  many  of  the  con- 
tinuation school  children  give  them  a better  appreciation  of 
industrial  values  to  which  the  continuation  school  mast  add  enough 
social  contact  as  well  as  civic  and  vocational  education  to  make 


I I 


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-92- 


these  children  more  socially  efficient.  While  the  teacher  in  the 
continuation  school  will  be  unable  to  capitalize  social  experiences 
to  the  same  extent  as  the  teacher  in  the  all-day  schools,  she  will 
be  able  to  use  industrial  situations  to  a much  better  advantage. 

The  Classification  of  Pupils 

When  the  pupils  enter  the  continuation  school  nothing  some- 
times is  knov7n  about  their  specific  needs,  interests,  problems, 
and  capacities.  Without  a knowledge  of  these  necessities  classi- 
fication hardly  can  be  made  with  a high  degree  of  accuracy.  If 
however,  these  things  can  be  learned  from  conversation  with  the 
public  school  authorities,  parents,  and  employers,  a tentative 
classification  can  be  made  pending  results  obtained  from  that 
arrangement.  When  results  show  that  improper  classification  has 
been  made  a change  can  be  effected.  Assuming,  however,  that  no 
knowledge  of  the  pupils  is  at  hand  a very  good  method  to  follow 
is  outlined  in  the  following  discussion: 

A class  in  general  industries  or  what  the  Springfield, 
Illinois,  authorities  call  a ’’reservoir  class”  is  formed.  Every 
pupil  about  whom  information  necessary  for  proper  classification 
is  lacking  or  who  is  undecided  as  to  the  trade  or  occupation  which 
he  expects  to  enter  is  put  in  this  class.  The  purpose  of  this 
class  is  to  give  general  information  about  the  different  industries 
and  about  the  capacities  that  are  necessary  for  making  a success 
in  each.  At  the  same  time  pupils  are  given  the  privilege  of 
visiting  the  different  rooms  where  special  vocations  are  being 
taught.  They  are  at  liberty  to  try  their  hands  at  any  of  the 
machines  under  the  direction  of  the  teachers  of  the  school  to  v/hom 
they  have  been  assigned  for  this  particular  work.  Their  interests 


^*1 


I ' 


; i 


id^  ra  r Ji0  m’’t^tli^ '9 


ic.  t *^:i'Si:-,r::j£‘‘t!^^  D<  * .•,  -Xr.^  io<.*-Uw"i|--iii 

; K'  4«r''f  doi- ••*’  <^tir.'ni  luctfc^-.  c* j.  * ^ 


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ffl  ■ j' vt"  j ’■'''  .*  ■ ' 


ft 


iStt  qfi!V!is'' iiufev i/'r  vi  ,v” ^ \ ^ 


5i 


,■  ' vj&feaiij ■■'  M, 

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f i'.Va  . ^iii-4-  .Ml  tM 


-93- 

are  soon  discernible  by  their  desire  to  stay  in  the  room  and  at 
the  work  which  especially  interests  them.  Then,  they  are  allowed 
to  enter  the  technical  classes  and  receive  instruction  in  those 
vocations  if  their  abilities  physically  and  mentally  tend  to  show 
that  they  are  capable  of  making  a success  in  those  lines  of  work. 
Otherwise  they  are  discouraged  from  entering  those  callings.  Of 
course  pathological  cases  should  not  be  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  continuation  school  and  when  they  are  they  must  receive 
special  attention. 

After  the  child  has  chosen  his  major  vocation  situations 
are  created  to  show  him  what  general  education  is  necessary  for 
the  accomplishment  of  his  aims.  If  he  wants  to  be  a carpenter  and 
needs  to  know  long  division  a situation  will  be  created  in  which 
the  knowledge  of  long  division  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
accomplishment  of  ;his  aims.  All  classes  should  be  formed  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  pupils  who  should  not  be  taught  subject-matter 
which  they  already  know.  Time  does  not  permit  and  neither  is  such 
an  action  a credit  to  an  educational  institution. 

Another  way  used  to  classify  pupils  is  by  the  "cycle  method 
By  this  plan  every  pupil  with  a few  exceptions  is  required  to  spend 
a certain  time  in  a class  which  teaches  him  certain  things  about 
every  vocation  that  is  offered  in  the  particular  school.  He  may 
spend  five  days  learning  some  fundamentals  about  auto-mechanics  and 
the  same  time  learning  about  each  of  the  other  trades  that  are 
taught.  In  one  school  in  Illinois  children  between  fourteen  and 
sixteen  ^end  all  their  time  in  just  this  kind  of  work  and  between 
sixteen  and  eighteen  they  specialize  in  some  particular  trade. 

If  the  first  method  is  used,  it  becomes  evident  that 


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!*5]fji'l 


-94- 

classes  necessarily  must  be  small.  In  fact,  certain  classes  may 
have  as  lov7  as  from  one  to  three  pupile  in  them.  Eight  or  ten 
pupils  is  supposed  make  a good  sized  class;  it  is  thought  to  be 

21 

expedient  that  no  class  should  have  more  than  twenty  pupile  in  it. 

What  use  have  intelligence  tests  in  the  classification  of 
continuation  school  pupils?  They  have  the  sa^^ie  general  use  as  in 
the  regular  all-day  schools.  Such  tests  should  be  given  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  an  index  of  the  pupils*  mental  capacity  in 
order  that  they  may  be  guided  rightly  and  be  pushed  to  the  maximum 
of  their  abilities.  Some  group  test,  such  as  the  Otis,  should  be 
given  first,  and  this  should  be  followed  in  doubtful  cases  by  some 
individual  test  or  tests,  such  as  the  Stanford  Revision  of  the 
Binet-Simon  Tests  in  order  to  check  and  balance  the  results  of  the 
first  test. 

Educational  achievement  tests  sometimes  may  be  used  to  find 
out  whether  the  pupil  has  attained  a high  enough  degree  of  pro- 
ficiency to  pursue  his  vocation  without  further  education  in  the 
general  subjects,  such  as  reading  and  arithmetic.  Such  tests  as 
Monroe* s Standardized  Silent  Reading  Tests  and  the  Courtis 
Arithmetic  Tests  seem  worthy  of  mention  in  this  connection.  Perhaps 
before  long  certain  very  reliable  standards  will  be  available  which 
can  be  used  as  a minimum  achievement  requirement  for  the  general 
cont iniiation  subjects.  At  present  no  such  trustv;orthy  data  is 
available  but  their  determination  would  be  a great  contribution 
to  the  educational  field. 

The  Curriculum 

Behavior  depends  considerably  upon  imitation.  The  fact  is 

21  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Illinois,  Bulletin  No. 13 
1920,13, 


r*  • ■'s.'.y  -r 

«fc.Trtit"nnr«i<  W oilifii 


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-95' 


very  noticeable  in  the  ciirricula  of  the  continuation  school. 

When  a continuation  school  is  first  established  the  curriculum 
of  some  other  school  is  adopted  usually  in  toto  or  in  a some- 
what modified  form.  Both  federal  and  state  boards  for  vocational 
education  give  suggestive  courses  of  study  which  frequently  have 
been  taken  from  the  existing  schools  of  some  cities  and  which 
have  come  to  the  attention  of  these  boards.  In  many  instances 
this  practice  is  not  to  be  cond.^mned  because  if  the  supervisor 
of  a system  is  not  an  expert  curriculum  builder  certainly  he 
had  better  adopt  a curriculum  that  has  proved  successful  some- 
where than  to  risk  his  ability  to  construct  an  absolutely  new 
curriculum. 

When  some  curriculum  is  copied,  however,  trouble  may  be 
brewing  because  it  may  have  the  same  fallacies  in  it,  that  drove 
the  boy  from  the  all-day  school.  In  one  school  that  the  writer 
visited  he  found  a class  in  auto-mechanics  busy  tearing  down 
and  assembling  an  old  oar  which  could  not  be  forced  to  run,  the 
only  automobile  in  the  shop.  This  activity,  the  teacher  said 
was  the  major  problem  of  the  course.  As  a result,  a general 
lack  of  interest  pervaded  the  entire  class.  The  class  just  re- 
ferred to  was  in  sharp  contrast  to  another  in  the  same  subject 
at  another  school  which  the  writer  visited.  The  problem  was 
making  broken  cars  run,  one  of  the  same  nature  as  the  garage 
man  has  to  meet.  Its  solution  was  accomplished  when  the  break 
was  adequately  repaired.  The  work  was  on  the  project  basis  and 
much  interest  pervaded  the  entire  class.  The  positive  classroom 
activity  of  both  pupils  and  teacher  showed  that  the  work  was  on 

the  right  basis,  the  meeting  of  a need.  In  other  the 


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-96- 


ourriculum  was  constructed  for  the  individual  pupil  to  teach 
him  what  he  did  not  know. 

WTry-Out  Courses*^' 

Obviously  courses  in  every  trade  cannot  be  offered  in 
every  community  and  the  question  arises  as  to  what  courses  should 
be  offered.  One  way  in  which  this  has  been  answered  in  the  small 
communities  of  Wisconsin  so  satisfactorily  that  the  Supervisor 
of  Industrial  Education  of  Illinois  recommended  it  for  small 
communities  is  by  ”try-out  courses. There  seems  to  'the  author 
to  be  no  special  limitations  that  confine  the  usefulness  of 
this  method  to  the  small  school.  In  fact  the  availability  of 
more  candidates  for  teachers  and  a larger  number  of  trades  ex- 
isting in  a larger  community  make  this  plan  adaptable  to  it  as 
well  as  to  the  smaller. 

This  plan  makes  the  first  course  in  technical  subjects 
a trial  course  and  does  not  require  special  equipment  and  the 
hiring  of  a high-priced  teacher  at  the  beginning.  Hence,  little 
risk  is  run  of  making  such  a failure  in  teaching  the  trade  that 
great  criticism  results  because  of  the  purchase  of  a 'great  amount 
of  equipment  that  cannot  be  used  again.  If  the  course  proves 
satisfactory  any  equipment  that  is  bought  will  be  obtained 
with  the  realisation  that  it  is  for  a course  that  is  actually 
functioning.  In  other  words  after  the'*try-out  course”'  has  been 
used  the  administration  will  know  whether  that  particular  course 
is  worth  while  in  that  particular  system,  providing  that  it 
has  been  handled  in  a equitable  manner. 

The  working  of  this  plan  is  very  simple.  If  in  any 
particular  community  there  are  a few  boys  of  continuation  school 
22  Ibid.,  17 


" Jo!‘> 


;t 


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4 


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('- 


-97- 


age  who  think  that  they  would  like  to  become  carpenters  they 
are  placed  under  the  instruction  of  a practical  carpenter.  If  at 
the  end  of  a reasonably  long  period  of  time  they  are  still  of 
the  same  mind,  the  carpenter  is  paid  an  annual  salary  to  instruct 
them.  Such  instruction  is  under  the  supervision  of  the  continua- 
tion school  authorities  and  is  for  as  many  hours  weekly  as  they 
may  determine.  The  carpenter  in  order  to  profit  from  the  result 
of  this  trial  experience  must  make  the  work  interesting  and 
profitable  to  the  boys. 

The  great  difficulty  in  the  working  out  of  the  plan  is 
the  finding  of  an  artisan  who  is  competent  to  teach  the  trade. 

He  may  be  a good  carpenter  and  at  the  same  time  be  a poor  teacher. 
As  a result,  the  "^try-out  course”  in  carpentry  in  one  community 
might  be  a total  failure  while  in  another  community  it  might  be 
a success.  Hence,  it  is  clear  that  this  method  is  not  absolutely 
satisfactory  in  determining  every  trade  that  should  go  into  the 
continuation  school. 

The  Equipment  of  The  Continuation  School 

The  equipment  that  the  continuation  school  should 
possess  depends  upon  the  courses  that  are  being  offered.  Each 
course  may  contain  phases  that  require  tools  which  are  peculiarly 
fitted  for  particular  jobts.  Since  different  teachers  may  use 
different  tools  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  same  result,  the 
administrator  should  solicit  the  advice  of  'his  teachers  as  to 
what  tools  they  need.  The  latter,  however,  will  have  a tendency 
to  request  many  tools  that  are  not  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
course.  The  budget  system  is  recommended  in  order  that  each 


•i*. . 


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.,  . ,, 


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-98- 


department  may  spend  its  allotment  most  wisely.  Tet  some  prac- 
tical objections  to  the  budget  present  themselves.  In  fact  each 
department  feels  that  it  must  spend  all  of  the  funds  that  are 
alloted  to  it  when  equipment  is  n'^eded  to  a greater  extent  in 
other  departments.  This  cannot  be  wholly  eliminated  but  if  the 
supervisor  keeps  a firm  hand  on  what  is  being  done  and  uses  a 
flexible  budget  part  of  the  difficulty  will  be  obviated. 

On  the  other  hand  if  the  administration  is  to  hold  every 
teacher  strictly  responsible  for  the  work  that  is  being  done 
under  his  supervision,  proper  equipment  must  be  furnished.  The 
ability  to  properly  equip  a continuation  school  should  be  con- 
sidered well  before  its  establishment.  If  working  tools  cannot 
be  supplied  to  the  teachers,  the  wisdom  of  the  establishment  of 
a continuation  school  is  questionable. 

Compulsory  Attendance 

The  value  of  compulsory  attendance  at  the  continuation 
school  hardly  can  be  questioned.  Its  arguments  rest  on  much  tie 
same  arguments  as  those  for  compulsory  attendance  at  the  regular 
Q'dl^^s.y  schools  and  like  the  traditional  public  school  its  en-~ 
forcement  is  vital  to  the  highest  efficiency  of  the  institution 
because  pupils,  in  general,  cannot  advance  with  their  fellow- 
pupils  when  their  attendance  is  checkered,  if  they  have  no  other 
means  of  obtaining  instruction.  Since  most  fathers  and  mothers 
are  unable  to  instruct  their  children  along  technical  lines 
other  than  the  one  in  which  they  have  specialized,  (provided  that 
they  have  specialized),  attendance  at  the  continuation  school  is 
necessary  for  the  continuation  school  pupil  in  order  that  he  may 
advance  rapidly  and  regularly. 


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-99- 


The  movement  for  compulsory  continuation  education  was 
early  espoused  hy  certain  German  cities,  and  it  gradually  became 
more  widespread  until  by  the  middle  of  the  last  decade  in  about 
four-fiffhs  of  the  states  attendance  for  boys  v;as  compulsory  up 
to  the  ages  of  sixteen,  seventeen  or  eighteen,  while  for  girls 
attendance  was  compulsory  up  to  the  ages  of  fifteen  or  sixteen. 

In  the  United  States,  however,  no  difference  is  made  between  the 
sexes  in  compulsory  requirements.  Compulsory  attendance  in  America 
has  been  referred  to  already. At  the  present  time  a decided 
movement  is  going  on  to  establish  a definite  mlnimuirn  age  require- 
ment which  is  to  be  uniform  in  .all  the  states.  It  seems  that  the 
"■minimum  number  of  hours  of  attendance  in  continuation  classes 
should  be  not  less  than  eight  hours  a week  for  each  week  that 
the  high  school  is  in  session,  or  a requirement  of  not  less  than 
330  hours  per  year  distributed  over  a reasonably  long  period  of 
time  during  the  year,"'  according  to  a recent  study. The  same 
commission  recommended  that  the  attendance  be  made  compulsory 
up  to  the  age  of  eighteen  unless  the  pupil  has  completed  his 
secondary  school  work. 

Methods  of  Securing  Attendance  ^ 

The  methods  of  securing  attendance  that  are  in  use  in 
the  all-day  schools  may  be  used  with  excellent  success  in  the 
continuation  school.  The  new  methods  of  instruction  per  se 
interest  the  pupils  in  what  they  are  doing  and  the  subject-matter 
with  which  they  deal  is  closely  connected  with  the  work  that  they 

23  Sadler,  M.E.,  Continuation  Schools  in  England  and  Elsewhere, 
518-519, 

24  Supra,50  et  Appendix  I . 

25  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  No,  5,  1921,  19, 


-100- 

are  doing  or  expect  to  do  in  industry.  The  teachers  are  vital 
instruments  in  giving  the  continuation  school  an  especial  interest 
for  the  pupil.  Their  personal  magnetism,  example,  and  interest 
in  the  lives  of  the  pupil  give  the  continuation  school  consider- 
able prestige  sunong  the  juvenile  workers  who  are  attending  it. 

The  most  important  leverage  on  the  compulsion  of  atten- 
dance, perhaps,  is  the  activity  which  should  be  connected  with 
every  continuation  school,  of  assisting  the  pupils  to  obtain 
jobs  and  to  advance  them  to  better  ones.  Principals  of  continua- 
tion schools  almost  universally  agree  that  due  to  this  one 
activity  they  are  able  to  win  and  hold  the  confidence  of  the 
children  who  come  under  their  influence.  No  other  school  has 
such  an  opportunity  coming  at  the  critical  period  of  the  life 
of  its  pupils  and  every  pupil  realizes  that  if  he  is  to  obtain 
the  best  job  he  must  be  on  the  friendliest  terms  with  the  con- 
tinuation school,.  Various  members  of  the  faculty  visit  him  at 
his  regular  duties,  find  out  how  he  is  getting  on,  sympathize 
with  him  in  ^is  adversities,  encourage  his  good  endeavors, and 
have  heart  to  heart  talks  with  his  employers.  Such  exertions 
win  his  confidence  and  often  he  will  show  that  he  merits  the 
confidence  and  interest  shown  in  his  favor. 

The  oomp'alsory  attendance  law  is  always  necessary  when 
the  school  goes  into  operation  if  results  are  expected  soon, 
but  after  it  is  running  smoothly  compulsory  attendance  will  have 
to  be  enforced  in  few  cases.  Failure  to  attend  the  continuation 
school  usually  means  for  the  pupil  dismissal  from  his  job,  if 
the  employers  cooperate  loyally  with  the  school  authorities.  It 
means  also  the  revocation  of  his  working  permit  and  the  return 


-lo;- 


to  the  all-day  school  in  many  oases,  depending  of  course  upon 
statutory  requirements.  In  addition  it  usually  means  the  im- 
position of  a fine  upon  both  the  employer  and  the  parent.  This 
has  a tendency  to  insure  attendance  thereafter. 

The  Teaching  Staff 

Reference  already  has  been  made  to  the  supervisor  of 
continuation  education. The  same  type  of  person  is  needed  for 
principal  where  the  continuation  school  is  not  a part  of  a com- 
prehensive high  school,  but  principals  with  experience  less 
broad  may  make  successes  if  they  are  working  \inder  the  firm  hand 
of  a competent  supervisor. 

The  teachers  of  the  various  subjects  form  the  fountain 
of  the  vitality  of  the  school.  In  many  cases  the  success  of  the 
institution  depends  upon  them  more  than  upon  any  other  single 
f actor. The  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  recommends 
that  ”If  it  is  weaving  that  is  to  be  taught  the  best  weaver  in 
the  mill  should  be  sought  for  teaching  purposes;  if  the  subject 
under  consideration  is  loom  fixing,  the  most  expert  loom  fixer 
should  become  the  instructor,  and  similarly  throughout  the  rnill?^® 
It  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  educational  authorities  will 
take  exceptions  to  the  fitbove  quoted  statements  because  the  most 
expert  artisan  is  sometimes  the  poorest  teacher.  Vaughan  says 
that  the  carpenter  instead  of  teaching  the  boys  how  to  build  the 
house  builds  it  for  them.  He  contends  that  teachers  who  know 
how  to  teach  should  learn  the  trades  and  jobs  and  become  teachers 

26  Supra, 74  et  ff. 

27  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Bulletin  No .30, 1919, 16. 

28  Ibid,  17. 

29  Vaughn,  S.J.,  Lectures  on  Vocational  Education. 


, . 'At, 


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-102- 

of  them  rather  than  have  expert  workmen  become  teachers.  At  the 
present  time,  however,  both  plans  are  employed  and  excellent 
teachers  of  both  types  are  now  found  in  the  continuation  school. 
Some  states  have  adopted  tentative  minimum  requirements 
for  license  to  teach  in  the  continuation  school.  The  standards 
set  for  teachers  of  general  continuation  subjects  are  usually 
higher  than  those  set  for  teachers  of  the  trade  extension  or 
trade  preparatory  subjects.  This  condition  exists  primarily  be- 
cause of  the  greater  availability  of  teachers  of  the  general 
continuation  subjects.  Illinois  requires  at  least  graduation 
from  the  eighth  grade  for  the  latter  and  two  years  of  education 
beyond  the  high  school  for  the  former?^  At  the  present  time, 
perhaps,  these  standards  are  too  low,  but  exceptions  to  ideal 
standards  must  be  made  when  the  supply  of  properly  qualified 
teachers  is  limited,  as  was  the  condition  during  the  Great  War 
when  the  Stats  Board  for  Vocational  Education  in  Illinois  made 
its  ruling.  In  many  places  the  regular  high  school  teachers  con- 
duct the  major  portion  of  the  continuation  work,  although  the 
advisability  of  this  practice  is  questioned  by  some  school  men. 
Vocational  Guidance 

A necessary  adjunct  to  the  continuation  school  is  the 

Bureau  of  Vocational  Guidance,  At  the  head  of  this  bureau  usually 

is  the  principal  of  the  school  or  a teacher  who  seems  to  the 

principal  to  be  properly  qioalified  for  this  position.  In  the 

largest  continuation  schools  which  are  not  operated  by  some 

industry  a director  of  vocational  guidance  may  be  found.  The 

duties  of  this  officer  in  either  case  are  to  place  the  pupils  in 

30  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Illinois,  Bulletin  No. 13.  1920 
pp.  18-19. 


-103- 


positions  to  which  they  are  best  adapted,  to  watch  their  work, 
and  if  they  deserve  the  honor  to  advise  their  promotion  to  better 
positions  when  the  opportunity  presents  itself.  It  is  his  duty 
to  give  them  some  instruction  which  will  lead  them  to  the  trades 
that  best  suit  their  capacities  and  abilities.  Perhaps,  too 
often,  this  officer  has  so  many  burdens  placed  upon  him  that  he 
cannot  do  justice  to  this  particular  office,  and  even  when  the 
duties  of  vocational  guidance  become  too  heavy  for  him  proper 
assistance  is  not  supplied.  Perhaps  here  is  one  of  the  inefficient 
parts  of  the  continuation  school  as  it  exists  today. 

Summary 

For  the  purpose  of  meeting  different  situations  three 
types  of  continuation  schools  or  classes  are  used  widely:  general 
continuation,  trade  preparatory,  and  trade  extension.  The  relation 
between  these  schools  and  the  regular  schools  depends  upon  state 
laws  and  local  conditions.  When  a continuation  school  becomes  a 
reality  in  any  community  the  daily  schedule  and  other  units  of 
organization  should  be  arranged  to  best  meet  the  needs  of  the 
community.  In  order  that  this  may  be  done,  the  federal  government 
has  seen  fit  to  aid  the  states  in  financing  the  continuation 
school  by  means  of  subsidies  provided  by  the  Smith-Hughes  Act. 

Yet  the  major  expense  in  most  cases  must  be  borne  by  the  local 
unit . Compulsory  attendance  laws  have  been  enacted  in  order  to 
force  the  unwilling  child  to  take  advantage  of  this  institution; 
yet  other  agencies  seem  to  be  just  as  effective  in  many  cases. 
after  the  pupil  has  been  in  attendance  for  a short  time.  One  of 
the  foremost  of  these  agencies  is  the  power  exerted  by  the  Bureau 
for  Vocational  Guidance  through  its  placement  department. 


«* 

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I 


i 

i 

i 

i 


-104- 


Seleoted  Biblio^rafthy 

Bawden,  William  T.,  ”The  Relation  of  The  Elementary  School  to  Sub- 
sequent Industrial  Education,"  National  Educational  Asso- 
ciation Proceedings,  1912,  912  ff. 

Board  for  Vocational  Education,  State  of  Illinois,  Bulletin  No. 

13,  1920,  "Day  Continuation  Schools  " 

Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  5,  1921,  "Part-Time  Education 
of  Various  Types'.*  (See  United  States,  etc.) 

Cooley,  Edwin  G.,  "Some  Chicago  Continuation  Schools,"  School 
Life,  January  15,  1920. 

Course  of  Study  for  The  Common  Schools  of  Illinois,  Sixth  General 
Revision,  Sixth  Year  Arithmetic 
Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Bulletin  No,  30,  1919, 
"Evening  and  Part-Time  Schools  in  The  Textile  Industry 
of  The  Southern  States" 

Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Bulletin  No.  19,  1918, 
"Part-Time  Trade  and  Industrial  Education" 

Hill,  David  S.,  Introduction  to  Vocational  Education 

Hurd,  H.  B.,  Revised  Statutes,  Illinois,  1919 

Sadler,  M.  E.,  Continuation  Schools  in  England  and  Elsewhere 

Smith-Hughes  Law,  Sections  3 and  11 

Vaughn,  S.  J.,  Lectures  on  Vocational  Education 

Vocational  Summary,  June  1919. 

Wisconsin,  State  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Biennial  Report, 
1914,  25  ff. 


iywi — 


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Chapter  IV 


% 


Retrospect  and  P’rospect 

The  American  Social  Situation  Needs  Improvement 

"The  prevalence  of  illiteracy,  the  elimination  from  the 
traditional  public  schools,  the  large  amount  of  poverty  and 
pauperism,  the  universal  extent  of  poor  health  and  physical 
incapacity,  the  general  lack  of  efficiency  among  workers,  the 
widespread  need  of  civic  and  social  education,  the  cosmopolitan 
misuse  of  leisure  time,  and  the  ecumenical  need  for  conservation 
of  natural  and  human  resources"  present  a social  problem  that  is 
extremely  complex  and  hard  to  remedy,  Ko  panacea  ever  has  been 
found  for  all  of  these  evils.  However,  many  agencies  have  been 
tried  and  the  positive  conclusion  that  has  been  reached  is  that 
only  31  aid  has  been  found,  Students  of  the  problem  point  out 
that  every  available  agency  should  be  sought  for  the  purpose  of 
improving  the  social  conditions  of  America, 

Continuation  Education  Aids  in  This  Movement 

In  this  great  movement  to  produce  a better  social 
environment,  old  agencies  are  being  brought  into  action  and 
new  agencies  are  being  created  to  meet  the  demand.  One  of 
these  agencies  that  may  be  of  much  value  in  this  movement  is 
the  continuation  school  which  is  especially  adapted  to  reach 

1 Supra,  33 . 


i-j 

1 ■ 


ir  « 

I 


r 


106- 


the  boys  and  girls  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  years  of  age  who 
have  left  the  all-day  schools  and  have  begun  careers  in  the 
industrial  world.  At  many  points  along  the  way,  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  this  institution  various  objections  arise,  but  for 
each  objection  there  seems  t::  be  an  opposing  affirmative  argu- 
ment. Anong  the  strongest  arguments  for  the  continuation 
school  is  the  historical  witness  that  this  institution  has 
been  tried  repeatedly  and  has  proved  succe.-sful  enough  in 
nearly  every  instance  to  be  retained.  This  recommendation 
shows  that  the  part-time  school  is  an  institution  that  is 
helping  to  meet  the  social  situations  that  exist  in  various 
communities.  When  all  of  the  objections  to  the  continua13on 
school  on  the  one  hand  and  all  of  the  arguments  fo^^  the  con- 
■feinuation  school  on  the  other  hand  have  been  summed  up  and  a 
tentative  balance  has  been  struck,  it  appears  to  the  writer 
that  the  verdict  must  be  rendered  in  favor  of  this  institution. 
It  is  a means  of  partially  securing  the  realization  of  a high 
ideal,  the  equity  of  educational  opportunity  for  all  America. 

Continuation  Education  in  The  Comprehensive  High  Rohool 

Perhaps  the  greatest  efficiency  in  continuation  edu- 
cation can  be  obtained. by  substituting  in  many  cases  for  the 
continuation  school,  as  it  is  herein  portrayed,  continuation 
classes  in  the  regular  high  schools.  This  conclusion  has  been 
reached  after  a careful  survey  of  the  following  conditions 
and  after  a careful  consideration  of  the  following  arguments: 
First,  the  local  high  schools  are  usually  equiciped 
with  the  best  educational  facilities  that  the  community  can 


i 


,9 


i 

j 


1 


-107- 

afford.  Usually  the  number  of  pupils  vvho  attend  the  continuation 
school, where  state-wide  continuation  school  systems  exist,  is 
not  large  enough  to  cause  a duplication  of  all  the  expensive 
equipment  and  buildings  which  are  used  only  a fraction  of  the 
regular  day.  Also  under  the  present  scheme  some  of  the  equip- 
ment that  has  been  purchased  for  the  continuation  schools  is 
idle  part  of  the  time.  If  these  two  institutions  were  brought 
together,  provision  could  be  made  to  eliminate  some  of  the 
waste  of  time  that  occurs  because  of  the  fact  that  the  building 
and  equipment  are _ idle  several  minutes  almost  daily.  Hence,  the 
cost  to  the  community  in  making  provision  for  buildings  and 
equipment  would  be  lessened  by  making  this  combination.  This 
will  hold  true  for  the  teaching  staff  also.  An  added  advan- 
tage that  is  worth  mentioning  is  that  the  pupils  who  attend  the 
continuation  school  might  feel  that  the  school  is  worth  more 
because  of  its  auperior  advantages.  This  feeling  would  also 
tend  to  affect  the  parents  in  the  same  manner. 

Secondly,  ”the  sense  of  social  solidarity  and  of 

loyalty  to  the  whole  community  will  be  developed  among  all 

2 

pupils  of  high  school  age."  Certainly  physically,  mentally, 
and  chronologically  continuation  school  pupils  are  not  of 
elementary  school  age.^  The  social  instinct  is  calling  and 
should  be  answered  by  the  appropriate  group,  children  of  like 
ages.  Such  an  arrangement  tends  to  give  a social  solidarity 

2 Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  No.  5,  1921,  17, 

3 Inglis,  Alexander,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  Chapters 
I-III. 


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-108- 

to  tile  community  and  to  eliminate  the  possible  elements  of  class 
education  which  the  continuation  school  frequently  has  b=en  ac- 
cused of  fostering. 

Thirdly,  "the  varying  needs  of  continuation  school 
pupils  can  be  met  more  adequately  in  the  larger  organization 
with  its  varied  facilities."^  The  interests,  needs,  and  problems 
of  the  pupil  are  of  primary  importance  in  effective  teaching. 

If  these  are  not  consulted,  waste  ensues  and  the  educational 
objectives  are  apt  to  be  lost  sight  of.  If  a pupil’s  chief 
interest  is  in  the  field  of  salesmanship ^ the  endeavor  of  school 
authorities  to  teach  him  one  of  the  mechanical  trades  will 
likely  be  crowned  with  little  or  no  success.  Yet,  the  average 
continuation  school  is  rather  limited  in  the  scope  of  its 
curriculum,  and  the  pupil  in  many  cases  is  forced  to  choose 
a trade  with  which  he  at  the  beginning  is  dissatisfied.  How- 
ever if  the  continuation  school  were  an  integral  part  of  the 
regular  high  school,  the  money  that  could  be  saved  and  invested 
in  increased  educational  facilities  would  tend  to  eliminate  this 
condition  to  some  degree, 

Foiirthly,  "the  comprehensive  high  school  will  be  stimu- 
lated to  serve  the  needs  of  all  pupils  of  high  school  age"  who 
are  now  in  industry.  Under  the  present  plan  industrial  edu- 
cation may  be  slighted  because  the  assumption  is  made  that  the 
pupils  who  take  advantage  of  it  soon  are  to  enter  industry  or 
a special  industrial  school.  Since  nearly  every  city  is  in 
more  or  less  financial  difficulties  this  condition  is  accepted 
and  sometimes  little  is  done  tj improve  conditions, 

4 Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  No.  5,  1921  17 

5 Ibid.,  17.  * * 


-109- 


Fifthly,  the  incorporation  cf  the  continuation  school 
as  an  integral  part  of  the  comprehensive  hi^h  school  will  react 
favorably  on  both  institutions  in  that  it  will  make  those  people 
whose  children  attend  the  continuation  school  more  sympathetic 
towards  the  needs  of  the  high  school.  At  the  same  time  this 
fusion  will  tend  to  cause  other  people  who  at  the  present  stage 
of  evolution  of  this  institution  are  skeptical  towards  it  to 
place  their  approval  upon  it  because  they  are  converted  to  the 
high  school  idea.  Hence,  the  "community  will  be  stimulated 
in  gaining  a broad  conception  of  the  function  of  the  high  school 
and  consequently  will  give  it  greater  financial  and  moral  sup- 
port . 

j 

•X 

Sixthly,  the  function  of  leading  pupils  back  to  the 
regular  schools  can  be  realised  better  if  the  continuation 
work  is  made  a part  of  the  comprehensive  high  school.  The 
association  with  the  regular  high  school  pupils  exerts  an 
influence  that  tends  to  promote  harmony  between  the  two  groups; 
and  conversely,  the  lack  of  association  tends  to  create  a gulf 
between  the  two.  As  a result,  the  transfer  is ^ accomplished 
with  some  difficulty.  Perhaps  this  is  true  in  fewer  cases 
under  the  present  arrangement  than  under  the  proposed  plan. 

The  comir^unity  of  interests  even  beyond  the  social,  that  are 
interrelated  offers  a means  for  a closer  harmony  between  the 
two  groups.  The  giving  of  high  school  credit  for  acceptable 
part-time  work  will  be  assured  and  the  pupil  will  recognize 
that  his  endeavors  are  being  recognized.  Hence,  ne  will 
feel  that  his  efforts  are  bringing  him  nearer  to  high  school 

graduation  and  perhaps  to  college  entrance  than  under  the 
6 Ibid,,  17. 


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-110- 


present  plan. 

In  short,  the  contention  is  maintained  that  the  continu- 
ation school  in  many  cases  cease  to  exist  as  a separate  institu- 
tion as  soon  as  is  practicable  and  that  trade  preparatory,  trade 
extension,  and  general  continuation  courses  be  included  in  every 
high  school  curriculum  where  a sufficient  demand  exists.  The 
accompanying  diagram  shows  the  proposed  relation  of  the  con- 
tinuation school  to  the  other  work  of  the  secondary  school  as 
well  as  the  relation  of  voluntary  education  to  the  life  of  the 

adult  in  his  social  environment.  When  the  plan  shall  have  been 

I 

carried  out  successfully,  the  continuation  idea  will  not  be  far 
in  advance  of  the  then  existing  system  of  continuation  education. 

The  Proposed  Organization 

The  diagram  on  the  following  page  is  thus  explained: 
After  the  pupil  completes  the  work  of  the  elementary  school  he 
regularly  passes  into  the  high  school  and  not  into  a separate 
continuation  school  even  though  he  may  enter  industry.  In  case 
he  does  enter  industry  during  his  six  years  in  the  elementary 
school  he  automatically  passes  into  the  continuation  department 
of  the  regular  high  school.  After  he  graduates  from  high  school 
he  may  continue  his  formal  education  by  going  on  to  college 
but  if  he  desires  to  pursue  his  chosen  vocation  he  may  continue 
his  eiucati  on  along  general  or  technical  lines  at  public  expense, 
provided  that  a demand  sufficiently  large  exists  to  justify  the 
offering  of  the  desired  courses.  Continuation  education  should 
be  compulsory  through  the  high  school  or  until  the  age  of  eight- 
een has  been  attained.  Thereafter  it  should  be  voluntary  for  the 


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-111- 


Illustration  II 


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-113- 


great  mass  of  the  populalion;  but  perhaps  those  people  who  are 
not  acquainted  with  American  principles  should  be  excepted 
from  this  arbitrary  rule  which  may  change  as  the  years  go  by 
just  as  the  compulsory  age  limits  have  done. 

The  Vocational  Guidance  Provision 

"The  success  of  the  plans  for  part-time  education 
will  depend  to  no  small  measure  upon  the  inauguration  of  an 
effective  and  comprehensive  plan  of  vocational  guidance,"'^ 
Whether  or  not  the  plan  suggested  in  this  chapter  is  accepted, 
it  remains  true  that  continuation  school  pupils  have  had  little 
or  no  vocational  guidance}  they  have  fallen  into  the  jobs  that 
offer  the  highest  initial  pay  and  have  taken  little  thought 
for  the  future.  If  Miles's  estimate  that  87  per  cent  of  the 
children  of  continuation  school  age  enter  the  "blind-alley" 
jobs  is  correct,  there  is  no  doubt  that  these  unfortunate 
children  need  both  educational  and  vocational  guidance.® 

In  the  comprehensive  high  school  there  should  be  in- 
corporated a bureau  of  vocational  guidance  which  may  have 
control  of  the  educational  guidance  as  well.  A report  of  the 
Commission  os'  The  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education  of  The 
National  Educational  Association  outlines  ^ pretty  definite 
program  for  such  a department.  It  should  assist  the  child  to 
guide  himself  through  educational  career  amd  tt  should 
place  the  worker  of  the  Continuation  Department  in  positions 
to  which  he  is  adapted. 

7 Ibid.,  13. 

8 Ibid.,  13. 


-113- 


The  Service  of  The  Future  Continuation  School 

Since  the  continuation  school  exists  in  an  evolutionary- 
social  environment  that  is  constantly  changing  and  since  this 
institution  itself  is  a result  of  this  evolution,  further  growth 
may  be  expected.  Perhaps  the  time  will,  come  when  every  state  in 
the  Union  w'ill  have  a well  organized  system  of  continuation  edu- 
cation, schools  at  which  working  children  will  be  compelled  to 
attend  until  they  have  become  eighteen  years  of  age  or  until  they 
haire  graduated  from  high  school.  If  such  state-wide  systems 
shall  be  inaugurated  universally,  SQuity  of  educational  oppor- 
tunity will  be  materially  furthered.  Hence,  it  follows  that  the 
younger  generation  will  tend  to  becoime  more  socially  efficient. 

But  this  is  only  part  of  the  story.  The  state  owes  a 
duty  to  the  adult  who  has  been  imable  to  obtain  an  education. 
Through  the  enlargement  of  the  conception  of  the  continuation 
school,  as  the  term  is  here  used,  the  continuation  school  may 
fulfill  tts  obligation  by  offering  to  him  that  educational 
opportunity  which  perhaps  he  has  never  had.  It  may  do  more 
than  this.  It  may  give  the  college  graduate  a chance  to  con- 
tinue his  studies  at  home  under  state  guidance  at  state  expense. 
When  the  child  must  continue  his  educational  growth  and  the 
adult  may  have  the  chance  to  continue  his  in  an  institution 
provided  oy  the  state,  the  realization  of  the  continuation 
idea  will  be  accomplished.  Then  continuation  education  will  be 

in  a better  position  to  assist  in  improving  the  social  conditions 
of  America. 


» k 


M '' 


i 


-114- 


Selected  Bitoliog:raphy 
Briggs,  Thomas  S.,  The  Junior  High  School 

Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  No. 5,  1931,  "Part-Time  Education 
of  Various  Types"  (See  United  States) 

Dewey,  John,  Democracy  and  Education 

Inglis,  Alexander,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education 

Johnston,  Charles  Hughes  and  Others,  The  Modern  High  School 


I 


I 


A 

\ 


■I 

1 


I 


} 


I 


-115- 

APPENDIX  I 

Provisions  of  Part-Time  Compulsory  Education  Laws* 


State 


Law 

in 

ef- 

fect 

Minimum 
number  of 
minors  re- 
quired to 
establish 
classes 

Age  of 
requir- 
ed at- 
tend- 
ance 

Hours 

of  re- 

quirdd 

attends 

ance 

per 

week 

1919 

15 

14-16 

5 

1920 

12(1) 

14-18 

4 

1921 

14-18 

8 

1919 

15 

14-16 

8 

1920 

200(2) 

14-16 

4 

1921 

50(3) 

14-18 

8 

1919 

25 

14-16 

4 

1919 

15 

14-18 

4 

1919 

15 

14-16 

8 

1919 

15 

14-18 

4 

1920 

20 

14-16 

6 

1919 

15 

14-16 

b 

1920 

20(4) 

14-18 

4^8 

1919 

20 

16-18 

^ ^ 

1919 

15(5) 

14-18 

5 

1915 

20 

14-16 

8 

1919 

15 

14-18 

4 

1920 

15(6) 

14-18 

4 

1921 

(4)  1 

14-18 

8-20 

Length  of  the 
school  year 


Arizona 

California 

Illinois 

Iowa 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Utah 

Wash ington 
Wisconsin 


150  hours 
As  public 
Do/ 

Do . 

Do . 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

144  hfeurs 
As  public 
36  weeks 
150  hours 
As  public 
144  hours 
As  public 
Do. 

144  hours 
As  public 
8 months 


school 


school 

scho'l 

school 

school 


Exrlana 

*(1) 

^11 


(3 

(4) 


it  ions: 

High  school  districts  having  50  or  more  puoils  must  es- 
tablish part-time  classss. 

Referendum  law  adopted  by  all  towns  except  one. 
Establishment  of  schools  is  compulsory  only  in  school 
districts  having  a population  of  5,000  or  more. 
Establishment  required  only  in  cities  of  over  5,000. 
Attendance  upon  evening  school  may  be  substituted. 
Districts  may  organize  schools  upon  written  requests  of 
twenty-five  residents. 


♦ This  table  was  taken  by  the  author  from  Federal  Board  for  Vo- 
cational Education  Bulletin  No.  55,  1920,  page  8;  it  has  been 
revised  to  June  1,  1922,  so  far  as'material  lould  bfoMainlS 


r».- 


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-116- 

APPENDIX  II 


Minimun  amount  available  from  the  State  Board  for  Vocational  Edu- 
cation because  of  the  Smith— Hughes  Act,  for  part-time  work  for 
workers  over  14  years  of  age,  by  years  * 


Fiscal 
year 
ending 
June  30- 


Minimum  amount  available  for  partirtirae  schools  and 

classes  

Federal  money:  " 


Total  federal 
and  state  or 
local  money 


one-third  of 
appropriation 
for  trade,  home 
economics,  and 
industrial  sub- 


St  e or  local 
money;  to  match 
federal  appro- 
priation 


1917- 18 

1918- 19 

1919- 20 

1920- 21 

1921- 22 

1922- 23 

1923- 24 

1924- 25 

1925- 26 

1926 -  on 


1377,333.34 
530, 666*  66 
689,333.34 
852,000.00 
1, G16, 666, 66 

1.181.333.34 

1.346.000. 00 

1.704.000. 00 

2.033.333.34 
2,033^333.34 


jects 

|1S8,  666. 67 

265.333.33 

344. 666. 67 

426.000. 00 

508.333.33 

590.666.67 

673.000. 00 

852.000. 00 

1.016. 666.67 

1.016.666.67 


$188,666.67 

265.333.33 

344.666.67 

426. 000. 00 

508.333.33 

590.666.67 

673.000. 00 

852.000. 00 

1,016,666.67 
1,016,366,37 


T Board  for  Yo°3-tional  Education  Bulletin  No.  19 

i y I K ij  ^ 


-117- 


Works  Consulted;  The  Bibliography 


Ale'xandsr,  W.  M,,  ”The  Factory  As  A Continuation  School,”  Proceed- 
ings of  The  New  York  Teachers'  Association,  1909,  Index 
University  of  New  York,  Albany.  ' 

Alltucker,  Margaret  M.,  Coordination  in  Part-Time  Education,  Uni- 
versity of  California,  Berkeley,  1921. 

Alsberg,  Elsa,  "Education  of  The  Imrrigrant,"  Proceedings  of  The 

National  Educational  Association,  1916,  786-792,  Washington. 

Anderson,  Lewis  F.,  "Beginnings  in  Industrial  Education,"  School 
and  Society,  13:1-9,  January  1,  1921. 

Ayres,  Leonard  P.,  Laggards  in  Our  Schools,  Charities  Publication 
Commission,  New  York,  1909. 

Bagley,  W.  C.,  "The  Unit  versus  The  Dual  System  of  Vocational  Edu- 
cation," Educational  Bimonthly,  9:191-199,  February,  1915. 

Ball,  F.  B.,  "Industrial  Training  in  Continuation  Schools,"  Proceed- 
ings of  The  Pennsylvania  State  Educational  Association, 

1910,  Index,  Pennsylvania  State  Journal,  Lancaster. 

Bazeley,  E.  T.,  "Two  Experiments  in  Voluntary  Continuation  Education 
Journal  of  Experimental  Pedagogy,  6:20-26  and  82-89,  March 
and  June,  1921, 

Bawden,  William  T.,  "The  Relation  of  The  Elementary  School  to  Sub- 
sequent Industrial  Education,"  Proceedings  of  The  National 
EducaHonal  Association,  1912,  907-915,  Washington. 

Bawden,  William  T.,  Vocational  Education,  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education  Bulletin  No.  25,  1919,  Government  Printing 
Office,  Washington, 

Beloit,  Wisconsin,  Annual  Report  of  The  Industrial,  Continuation, 
Commercial,  and  Evening  Schools,  1912-13  and  1913-14 
Board  of  Education.  ^ 

Bennett,  Charles  A.,  "The  Boston  Continuation  School,"  Manual 
Training  Magazine,  21:329-333,  June,  1920. 

Best,  R.  H. , and  Ogden,  C.  K.,  The  Problem  of  The  Continuation 
School,  King  and  Son,  London,  1914. 

Blair,  Francis  G.,  "Amendment  to  The  Continuation  School  Law  " 

Educat ional  Press  Bulletin,  July,  1921. 

Blair,  Francis  G.,  "Part-Time  Education,"  Educational  Press  Bul- 
letin, June,  1922. 


-118- 


Blewett,  Ben,  ’’The  Education  of  The  Adult  Immigrant,”  Proceedings 
of  The  National  Educational  Association,  1915.  439-445 
Washington.  ' 

Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Illinois,  Annual  Reports:  1920  and 
1921,  Springfield. 

Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Illinois,  Day  Continuation  Schools 
Bulletin  No.  13,  1920,  Springfield.  * 

Bonner,  H.  R.,  Statistics  of  State  School  Systems,  1917-18  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  11,  1920,  Govern- 
ment Printing  Office,  Washington. 

Briggs,  Thomas  S.,  The  Junior  High  School,  Houghton  Mifflin,  Boston, 


Brown,  John  F.,  The  American  High  School,  Macmillan,  New  York,  1917. 

Callahan,  John,  "Part-Time  Vocational  Education,"  Pr@ceedings  of 

The  National  Educational  Association,  1019,  272-275  Wash- 
ington. ' 


Carris,  Lewis  H.,  "Administration  of  Compulsory  Part-Time  Laws  " 
Vocational  Summary,  2:22-27,  June,  1919.  ' 

Carris,  Lewis  H.,  "The  Significance  of  A State-Wide  Continuation 
School  Law,"  Proceedings  of  The  National  Society  for  The  - 
Promotion  of  Education,  1917,  118-120,  New  York. 

Cary,  C.  ?.,  "Danger  Ahead:-Unity  of  The  Educational  System  Threat- 
ened," Journal  of  Education,  85:120-121,  February  1,  1917. 

Case,  M.  Elizabeth,  "An  Adventure  in  Education,"  New  Republic  13: 
209-211,  December  22,  1917.  * 

Clark,  Ruth  S.,  "The  Continuation  School,"  Survey,  45:  541-542 
January  8,  1921.  • ' 

Cole,  Carlos  M.,  "The  Denver  Opportunity  School,"  Chicago  School 
Journal,  3:'10-13,  September,  1920. 

Colgrove,  F.P.,  "The  Part-Time  Continuation  School,"  Proceedings 
of  The  National  Educational  Association,  1919,  619-621 
Washington.  ' 

Commercial  Club  of  Chicago,  Vocational  Schools  for  Illinois,  Com- 
mercial Club,  Chicago,  1915. 

"Compulsory^ Continuation  Schools  in  New  York,"  School  and  Society 
10:516-517,  November  1,  1919. 


Connelley,  C.  B.,  "The  Place  of  The  Corporation  and  The  Continuation 

Journal  of  The  National  Educational  Association, 


1:412-417,  January,  1917. 


<4J»i. 


• '■»’%r.  ' ■ j- 

ri<?tfialu.1Hi/-i 


^'  ' ''!"■( 


IT  '/a 

'*..■' ^^it''X'  ,5oiv"-^l7»^ff «A  X-iU/tO ^ ^ ■ ’ *> ''  t--, .i- 5d*.-.  .^, 


' - ■"'■'f,  , ,;,1, 

i*  ' ^ , l' 


t ' ■ ’ ' * ' ' I 

IX 


. <V¥ 


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" w.  , : ,JC^®I  •'..  ..7^ 

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t.r;  ,ncJW^ox-*^  X^ttikin^a^  ta'i-ut-^oaj 

- ' .’ v^-nfiUt':i^  .£X  .d*:  olUdIv 

f ",a’: ' : >“ '■  ■'.  ".v‘^'  'a-'  ' ‘f,  ' ' ' '\ 


,*■  ' 7’'i  \ tf'f '■'■A^i’'l  ■,-K,\  ' -,?5 


i),  ' .'  Al  ’^''V, ,.C*^V  ''.  .,  .-.S;,  c J^  ,1  , ■ ,:  i*y" ..';'••<•  ■•  ■••  •;  ,-  ■’-■■'  .^  **■  "*  “/  ' ' 


■•i, .■,-')  -,  .V  K‘  V.,.5*t»>:  ' .' » •-''. . V ;t.  I i •,  ■'  /!  ..  ; W ’ ■ ■»  ; .;•  ^ -*  ■ 

^■■Jfirj V fa  -A "' 5b>‘w^‘ii 0^'i X ” i . -I  «^o,^ 

' .»d?  XC:^^  X- ,.*^-**—  «...•»'!  V ^aT.‘  n,y*Jn!*.  .1.^ 


■ -^  ^ * 


t^aiooe  ■ •b.it^ha  «:$r*'W'' ^^.-.fi '•’ " ' ‘.j 

, xX'^'  '* ' *4. 4i"Xsi>^i4^,  ^ . 'X*--v‘ii.;;>C  ^ ^ti.-0':io  '|K 

. V :'■  ■"'■  \ , ' "V’  vc,  :/v  \''  >,  A.*  . y , 

' . ^ - " .'*;m  X'nrfn.f.p^C  ,£',SS-J^0i^  . % ^ 

i - ",  •,  ,,^i  . '^, '■  -1-,  ' ™ r^ 


'i*  ,.♦  'f/  *■  ' 

fct- '■.a.Jt.v  c.'  4o'!^ofii>rct^eM#'^l!>0'i■n^^ 

1.  " ' '■  ^'  '>  , :'\li-i  >.:v  ■ V,.-’  iiftO*  ■^4 ’.iWC" 


i li 


i’ife  '’l^  ■*-  fiT'JlP'  XJ  I ft  tr^  :’itoS'5  h 

■ *'!■*  ■■  ; ■'  .ei';-,.:  ,I  :A}■'3a^'yo^'■  ,j-C^Ui 

I ''  . ' V"/ *'  ”‘'v  Ali-  rf''' Ji'i  "**  ' ^ """'  ' -'’. 

; ® ' •■  ' .•■"  ^ 


Vi  '’  < 

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wf  ' 


LT!  ‘ fLr  I 


-119- 

"Continuation  Schools  in  Denmark,"  The  Times  (London),  Educational 
Supplement,  421-432,  August  21,  1919. 

Cooley,  Edwin  G.,"The  Continuation  School,"  American  School  Board 
Journal,  45:11-59,  Aup'ust,  1912. 

Cooley,  Edwin  G.,  VCont inuation  Schools, " Proceedings  of  The  Nation- 
al Educational  Association,  1915,  1203-1207,  Washington. 

Cooley,  Edwin  G.,  "The  Need  for  Vocational  Schools,"  Educational 
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